GLOSSARY OF TRAINING TERMS
Note: This is a draft list of training terms to be adapted by Master Trainers to suit either the DTS or the DoT. Additional terms will need to be added.
ACHIEVEMENT TEST
General terms used in psychological testing for a test that measures a defined level of achievement in a particular OCCUPATION (e.g. job knowledge test) rather than potential or APTITUDE or intelligence. Also referred to as ‘ATTAINMENT TEST’
ACTION-CENTRED LEADERSHIP
This is an approach to leadership training which identifies the different needs which a leader must satisfy if he is to lead others to achieve an objective. These are:
a) TASK: The need to achieve or come close to achieving the objective(s).
b) GROUP: The need for members of the group to co-operate with each other to achieve the objective(s).
c) INDIVIDUAL: The satisfaction of the different personal needs which each individual brings into a group, which could cause physical or psychological withdrawal if they are not met.
ACTION LEARNING (AL)
Learning by experience, through solving an actual problem of an organisation.
See SET.
ACTION RESEARCH
Research which is directed towards the practical improvement of the situation under observation.
ACTIVITY LEARNING
A general term used to indicate learning by means of active participation of the learner in such exercises as PROJECT WORK and group discussion, as opposed to passive means such as lectures or films.
ALGORITHM
A mathematical term meaning an exact prescription, defining a computational process leading from various initial data to the desired result. In LOGICAL TREE analysis its meaning has been extended to reducing the process of decision-making to a sequence of ‘Yes/No’ (Either/Or) responses to specific questions, stemming from previous decisions made and/or prior statements of action. Provided there are no ambiguities of instruction, a successful outcome is guaranteed.
APPRAISAL
Assessment of performance and/or progress in the exercise of a given responsibility or in the development of personal and technical competence.
APPRECIATION TRAINING
TRAINING, usually of short duration, designed to give a generalised understanding of a subject area or of the uses of certain techniques. It is not intended to equip the learner with specific SKILLS and is usually arranged for people who require some knowledge of the work of others, e.g. appreciation courses for senior managers on work study, computers, selection, and training.
ASSERTION TRAINING
Training designed to help people increase their own self-esteem and self-respect and to recognise and respect these qualities in others. It involves helping people understand the differences between assertion and aggression, between non-assertion and politeness, and when each is appropriate to use.
ASSESSMENT OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS
A general term for the processes of ascertaining whether TRAINING is efficient or effective in achieving prescribed objectives. It covers both VALIDATION and EVALUATION.
ATTITUDE/KNOWLEDGE/SKILL BEHAVIOUR PATTERN
The essential determinants of effective performance in terms of attitude, KNOWLEDGE and SKILL – the attitude to perform, the knowledge required to take the right attitude and the skills necessary to it.
ATTITUDE SURVEY
Originally a technique for discovering by confidential non-directive interview with a sample of employees, their suggestions, criticisms, and feelings about their work and related matters. The terms is now used for other procedures as well as interviews including enquiry by questionnaire, and with other samples of people (e.g. consumers).
AUDIO AIDS
Aids to communication, with special reference to controlled learning, which utilize the sense of hearing – e.g. record players, tape recorders and radios.
AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS (AVA)
Aids to communication which utilize both sight and hearing. They include a variety of electro-mechanical systems, such as sound film and filmstrip, broadcast and CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION and video recordings.
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES
An unambiguous statement of:
a) What a learner is expected to be able to do as a result of a learning experience;
b) The facilities and constraints under which the performance is carried out;
c) The level of performance in terms of time, accuracy and completeness of the TASKS involved.
BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES
Those academic disciplines which have as their filed the responses of living organisms to an experience. Ordinarily this would refer to ethnology, psychology, sociology, and anthropology, although other disciplines such as economics and ecology are increasingly concerned with behaviour. It is now more common to speak of behavioural sciences as a whole.
BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS
See INTERACTION ANALYSIS
BENCHMARKS
A sample selected from the whole population of JOBS for one or more of the following purposes:
a) As standards against which other jobs can be compared and slotted in;
b) As being representative of particular grades of work;
c) To provide a means of testing a points-based JOB EVALUATION scheme;
d) In order to carry out remuneration surveys.
Also sometimes known as ‘anchor points’ or ‘key jobs’.
BRAINSTORMING
A technique used for finding solutions to problems by means of stimulating ideas. A small group of people with or without conscious knowledge of the subject meet and contribute any suggestion or idea that comes into their heads, no matter how fantastic or impossible it may sound. All suggestions are encouraged and criticism is not allowed at this stage, though contributors are later invited to explain their ideas. Subsequently all the ideas submitted at the meeting are sifted and assessed.
BUSINESS GAME/EXERCISE.
A learning exercise in which groups of students operate as management teams of imaginary companies in a carefully defined competitive market. Umpires (or a computer) evaluate each company’s decisions (for example, to increase investment in production but to spend less on research) and at the end of the game, the performance of the companies are compared. Students learn both from the game itself and from subsequent reviews of performance.
CASE STUDY METHOD
A learning technique in which a real or fictional situation or series of events is presented to trainees for their analysis and consideration of possible solutions of problems identified. Their findings in a real situation can be compared subsequently with what actually occurred. Case studies are often used in inter-personal industrial relations situations such a disciplinary cases and grievance handling.
CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV)
The transmission of television signals to a restricted audience by means of a cable or microwave link between transmitter and receiver.
COACHING
Systematically increasing the ability and experience of the trainee by giving him/her planned TASKS, coupled with continuous appraisal, advice and COUNSELLING by the trainee’s supervisor.
COGNITIVE SKILLS
1. Skills involving the exercise of conscious thinking, as distinct from those when the thinking element is unconscious, as in SENSORY MOTOR or psycho-motor SKILLS.
2. Those skills dependent mainly on reasoning faculties rather than on feelings or emotions.
COHORT ANALYSIS
Statistical technique that traces the erosion or wastage occurring over a period of time for a group of recruits hired on or about the same date. The method expresses those remaining in the company at the end of the period as a percentage of those employed at the beginning. Similarly it is used to follow the progress of other homogeneous groups over given periods of time.
COMPETENCE
Ability to perform a particular activity to a prescribed standard. The activity may involve the development of a variety of SKILLS.
See also CORE COMPETENCIES
COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING (CAL)
CAL involves the use of the computer as a teaching medium and/or learning resource in an educational or training system. Used as a teaching medium, the computer’s PROGRAM controls the presentation of instructional material to a learner on the basis of his/her responses to previous questions. The computer thus ADAPTS teaching to the individual. Used as a learning resource, the computer acts as a tool for the learner, providing calculation, STIMULATION, MODELLING, problem-solving, and information facilities. In this case, the computer does not necessarily teach in any direct sense – e.g. a flight simulator in aircrew training.
COMPUTER-MANAGED LEARNING (CML)
CML involves the use of the computer to manage teaching and learning in educational and training systems. The computer performs one or more of four main tasks:
- Test marking/analysis/production;
- The ‘routing’ of students/trainees through an individualized course if study where the teaching is not done by the computer but by teachers, books, self-instructional media;
- The keeping of classroom records;
- The writing of reports for teachers, instructors, students, trainees, administrators.
CONDITIONING
A terms for the establishing of a stimulus-response relationship in an individual’s behaviour. Theories of conditioning have greatly influenced the psychology of learning.
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT
Assessment of a trainee/student at frequent intervals during a course as a complement to, or replacement for, end-of-course tests or examination.
CORE SKILLS
1. SKILLS central for the achievement of task OBJECTIVES for any given test (distinguished from peripheral skills – those which have only marginal significance for this purpose).
2. Those particular SKILLS that are crucial to the component performance of an activity, the mastery of which not only makes for competence in that activity but becomes a basis for acquiring competence in related activities.
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS (CBA)
A systematic comparison between the cost of carrying out a service or activity and the value of that service or activity, quantifying as far as possible in terms of money. All costs and benefits (direct and indirect, financial and social) are taken into account.
COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS
A method of finding:
1. The cheapest means of achieving a defined OBJECTIVE.
2. The maximum value from a given expenditure.
COUNSELLING
A direct personal relationship in which the counsellor’s friendliness, experience, and KNOWLEDGE, are made available to another person in order to assist the latter in solving his/her problems.
COURSE AIM
A concise statement of the purpose of a course. The phrase is used particularly in the SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TRAINING.
COURSE ASSESSMENT
A general term covering the judgement of suitability of a course to meet identified learning needs and the subsequent assessment of the extent to which these needs have been satisfied.
COURSE DESIGN
The process of planning content, sequence, and presentation of a course to meet its objectives.
COVERDALE TRAINING
Based on the work of Ralph Coverdale. TASKS are performed in groups, but there is no special emphasis on inter-personal behaviour. The participants learn a systematic approach to getting things done and learning results from each individual’s and group’s experience.
CRITERION BEHAVIOUR
A detailed specification of what a learner is expected to be able to do at the end of a training PROGRAMME. In programmed instruction, it is used specifically in designing a programme for a
TARGET POPULATION, to distinguish between present behaviour and BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE – the new objective is the criterion for assessing the effectiveness of the programme.
See CRITERION TEST.
CRITERION TEST
A test in the appropriate written or practical form, designed to measure to what degree the learner has reached the specified BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE (CRITERION BEHAVIOUR). It can also be given as a PRE-TEST to identify individuals who need the TRIANING and to establish a ‘base-point’ from which to measure progress; and/or as a POST-TEST to measure the effectiveness of the PROGRAMME by comparing the pre-test and post-test scores.
CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE
The process of establishing, through the experience of supervisors and peers, the priorities of those activities deemed critical to performing the JOB. It focuses on actual examples of job behaviour and on judgements as to what behaviour makes for success or lack of it where the lack of success is attributable to human errors.
See INCIDENT PROCESS
CUEING
A technique, used particularly in PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION, to prompt the student and thus lead him or her to make the correct response.
CUMULATIVE-PART METHOD
A method in which the operation to be learned is divided into separate parts, and instruction and practice are given initially in the first part only, followed by the first and second parts together, and so on, until the whole operation has been learned.
See WHOLE METHOD and PROGRESSIVE-PART METHOD.
See also PART ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE.
CURRICULUM
An organized programme of study undertaken by students in a school, college, university, or other institute, or under the jurisdiction of such an educational body. Especially used to delineate a course prescribed for a particular group of students (e.g. single age group).
See SYLLABUS
CYBERNETICS
The study of communications systems in machines and also in the human brain; or the means of controlling an activity or set of activities to keep them directed towards a particular goal. Cybernetic control is dependent on the adequacy of the arrangements for feeding back relevant and reliable information to the point at which action can be taken.
See SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TRAINING and SYSTEMATIC TRAINING.
DEDUCTIVE METHOD
Teaching from general principles, leading to particular examples of application.
DEVELOPMENT
The growth or realization of a person’s ability, through conscious or unconscious learning. Development programmes usually include elements of planned study and experience, and are frequently supported by a coaching or counselling facility.
DIAGNOSTIC SKILLS
The ability to identify and comprehend the reasons for particular events or relationships from an analysis of symptoms.
DIRECT TRAINER
A phrase used to cover anyone who has a specific responsibility for carrying out training, mainly in a face-to-face situation. The term is not limited to TRAINING STAFF.
DISCOVERY METHOD
A method of learning which is designed to enable the learner to formulate his/her own understanding of a subject through a solution of a carefully-designed sequence of problems. Traditional expository methods usually tell the learner exactly what it is that he/she has to understand. It usually proceeds by presenting principles first, and examples later, whereas the discovery method presents selected examples first, and principles only when the learner has understood the concepts.
DISCUSSION METHOD
A training technique in which the learning derives principally from the participants themselves rather than from an instructor.
DISTANCE LEARNING
Any form of LEARNING in which the teachers and students are not in the same place. Covers correspondence education, and OPEN UNIVERSITY – type teaching by TV and radio.
See, OPEN LEARNING
EDUCATION
Activities which aim at developing the KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, moral values and understanding required in all aspects of life rather than knowledge and skill relating to only a limited field of activity. The purpose of education is to provide the conditions essential for young persons and adults to develop and understanding of the traditions and ideas influencing the society in which they live and to enable them to make a contribution to it. It involves study of their own and other cultures and of the laws of nature, as well as the acquisition of linguistic and other skills which are basic to learning, personal development, creativity, and communication.
see TRAINING.
ELEMENT (OF WORK)
A distinct part of a specified TASK selected for convenience of observation, measurement, and analysis. WORK STUDY elements are normally the smallest units of analysis; TRAINING (or instructional) elements are usually greater and are selected for convenience of learning.
see TASK, JOB and OCCUPATION.
ENABLING OBJECTIVE
see OBJECTIVE.
ENCOUNTER GROUPS
An approach to improving self-analysis, self-understanding, and individual growth and development through exchanging personal experiences, and exploring and externalizing feelings in a group situation.
see EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING and T-GROUP TRAINING.
ERGONOMICS
The study of the relationship between man and his occupation, equipment, and environment, and particularly the application of anatomical, physiological and psychological knowledge to the problems arising therefrom.
ERROR CHECKLIST
A list of possible mistakes which could be committed while performing a TASK, arranged so that an observer has only to tick them when they occur.
ERROR CORRECTION
The steps taken by an INSTRUCTOR to help a trainee to overcome the mistakes he or she makes while learning. The way in which an instructor reacts to impending or actual mistakes is an important element of effective instructional style.
ERROR RATE
Refers to the number or percentage of a given group of trainees incorrectly responding to a specific item of a training programme. A high degree of error would probably indicate a need for revision of the programme.
EVALUATION OF TRAINING.
The assessment of the total value of a training system, training course, or programme, in social as well as financial terms. Evaluation differs from VALIDATION in that it attempts to assess the overall cost benefit of the course or programme, and not just the achievement of its laid-down objectives. The term is also used in the general judgmental sense of the continuous monitoring of a programme or of the TRAINING FUNCTION as a whole.
see VALIDATION and COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
EXPECTANCY CHART
A graphic device used to predict the performance of individuals in a particular occupation, sometimes after APTITUDE or SKILLS testing, to predict the level of efficiency in a particular workforce. It may also indicate the number of workers expected to be of above-average performance.
EXPERIENCED WORKER STANDARD (EWS)
The standard of quality and output of production or services achieved by the average experienced worker over a given period of time (normally one working day at OPERATOR level). EWS is normally agreed between managers and workers’ representatives and often derives from WORK STUDY or JOB ANALYSIS. The term is not to be confused with TRAINED WORKER STANDARD (TWS).
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
Experiential training techniques have been introduced to generate experiences which trainees can examine and learn from individually or in small groups. They have been developed on the basis that people learn best from their own experience – provided that this experience can be examined rationally and that conclusions can be tested. Experiential learning is essentially something more than simply learning by having experience of work.
see ENCOUNTER GROUPS and T-GROUP TRAINING.
EXTERNAL TRINING COURSE
A course for which the organisation and direction of the sessions is the responsibility of an authority other than the employer of the trainees.
EXTERNAL VALIDATION
see VALIDATION
FAULTS ANALYSIS
The process of analysing the faults occurring in a procedure, product, or service, specifying the symptoms, causes and remedies of each, under headings such as :
- Name of fault
- Appearance
- Cause
- Effect
- Responsibility
- Action
- Prevention.
FEEDBACK
The process by which information about the results of an action is communicated to the source of the action. It is argued, for example, that LEARNING takes place either through the informational characteristic or the reinforcing characteristic of the knowledge of results, or through a combination of both. SYSTEMS theory or CYBERNETICS is concerned with this process in organizational and machine control systems as well as in human beings.
FLANNEL BOARD
A VISUAL AID comprising a board of suitable size covered with cotton, flannel, felt, wool or suede cloth, to which objects (principally drawings, pictures and signs) backed with strips of similar materials or coarse glass paper, will adhere, when pressed to it.
FLIPCHART
Sheets of detachable blank newsprint used for display purposes with felt-tipped pens or crayons.
FLOW CHART
A diagram or MODEL, substantially to scale, which shows a location of specific activities carried out and the routes followed by workers, materials, or equipment, in the execution of those activities. Process chart symbols may be embodied in the diagram.
FORMAL TRAINING
A structured programme of training normally provided off the job in an establishment or centre designed or designated specifically for training and staffed and equipped for that purpose. It may well include informal elements within the more formal programme structure.
see INFORMAL TRAINING.
FRAME
1. In PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION, a term for that part of a PROGRAMME or subject matter which is presented at any one time.
2. Also refers to a single picture in a FILMSTRIP.
FUNCTIONAL COSTING
A system for analysing programmes expenditure by reference to objectives instead of under input headings such as staff, buildings, equipment, etc.
GESTALT
A group of techniques associated with Gestalt psychology and based on the capacity to see things as a whole rather than in parts. Awareness is thus expanded on an overall rather than on a piecemeal basis.
GROUP DYNAMICS
The study of the inter-action of the behaviour of individuals as members of a group and of the behaviour of groups generally.
GROUP SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISE.
An exercise to help a group to evaluate its own functioning, to explore effectively the participation of group members, and to examine the behaviour that has developed in the group after it has been meeting for some time. EVALUATION questionnaires may be used to chart the group’s progress towards effective functioning.
HARDWARE
1. A term used to describe the physical apparatus in a computer system and to distinguish it from codes, PROGRAMS, etc. which are referred to as SOFTWARE.
2. In the educational field, equipment (such as film projectors) used to display teaching aids or SOFTWARE.
HEURISTIC METHOD
An educational method, the principle of which is to arrange the work so that the pupil discovers laws and principles for himself, rather than learning them directly from the teacher.
see DISCOVERY METHOD
HIERARCHICAL OPERATING ANALYSIS
A method of TASK ANALYSIS in which TASKS are progressively re-described in terms of superordinate and subordinate operations.
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS/MASLOW THEORY
A theory of five levels of human needs for satisfaction developed by A.H. Maslow in 1943:
1. Basic physiological needs (air, food, and rest/shelter)
2. Safety and security (freedom from deprivation of danger)
3. Social (group belongingness, friendship)
4. Esteem (reputation, status, self-respect)
5. Self-fulfillment (realization of potential, sense of achievement, full use of talents).
The theory is basically concerned with the influence of these needs on motivation.
HISTOGRAM
A diagram showing the relationship existing between the magnitude of a measurement and the frequency of its occurrence, so drawn that area in the diagram corresponds to frequency.
HOLOGRAPHY
see LASER HOLOGRAPHY
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Activities concerning the deployment and utilization of manpower at work, involving the recognition that managers are concerned with people as well as with material resources.
HUMAN RESOURCES
The potential available to an organisation from the people who work in it. It is determined and developed through:
1. Organisation review and analysis.
2. Manpower planning, recruitment and selection.
3. Manpower training and development.
4. Industrial relations.
5. Employee remuneration.
6. Employee services (including safety, health and welfare)
7. Administration and records.
IDENTIFICATION OF TRAINING NEEDS (TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS)
An examination of the organization’s present and expected operations and the manpower necessary to carry them out, in order to identify the numbers and categories of staff needing to be trained or re-trained. It may also refer to the training needs of an individual to enable him to reach the required standard of performance in his current or future JOB.
‘IN’ BASKET/TRAY METHOD
A form of training which attempts to simulate the working situation by setting the trainee realistic TASKS, by presenting him/her with papers such as letters and memos placed in the ‘in’ basket or ‘in’ tray. The results of the exercise are then analyzed and assessed on the basis of the decisions made.
INCIDENT PROCESS
A variation of the CASE STUDY approach in which individual, small team or group analysis is used to uncover the critical facts of the case – i.e. participants have to ask the right question to get the important data.
see CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE.
INDUCTION
Arrangements made by an organisation to familiarize the trainee/new employee with the working of the organisation, welfare and safety matters, general conditions of employment, and the work of the section or department in which he or she is to be employed. It is a continuous process, starting from the first contact with the employer.
INDUCTION LOOP SYSTEM
A method of distributing audio information to a group of learners through earpieces, without their having to be directly connected to the audio source. The situation is similar to radio transmission over a very limited area: a signal is fed into a radiating loop of wire round the working area, the signal being picked up in each learner’s earpiece.
INFORMAL TRAINING
Less structured training, often on-the-job and problem-centred, where there is an emphasis on coaching and advising, often involving making learning opportunities out of day-to-day work and problems.
INSTRUCTION SCHEDULE
A detailed breakdown of a specific SKILL for purposes of instruction. It aims to set down the best learning sequence in order to help the trainee master new skills to be learned and stipulates key points in the JOB. It should not be confused with a lesson or learning plan which is the Instructor’s complete plan for the conduct of a session.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
see BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES
INSTRUCTIONAL SPECIFICATION
A statement of the TRAINING given on a course which specifies objectives, teaching strategies, appropriate aids, and testing procedures, and may be supplemented by details of the administration of the course. Used particularly in the SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TRAINING.
INSTRUCTION
see TRAINING STAFF
INTERACTION
The way people affect each other – indicated, for example, by degree of intimacy, emotional tone, style of speech, and degree of co-operation or competition.
INTERACTION ANALYSIS
A system whereby observed behaviour is categorized into discrete units, and a tally of their occurrences is made during the performance of a TASK. The quantified observations are fed back to the individual or group in a framework which is designed to enable an individual to improve his social performance. The overall objective is an increased ability to understand, analyze, and respond to, the behaviour of others.
INTERACTIVE SKILLS/INTER-PERSONAL SKILLS
The SKILLS involved in making oneself effective with an individual or within a group and sensitive to the reasons for the behaviour of others. The purpose of such group training methods as GROUP DYNAMAICS and T-GROUPS is to develop these skills.
INTEREST INVENTORY
Used in personnel selection, career guidance, etc., to obtain information on the personal and/or leisure interests of candidates or employees. The theory is that such information can be an indication of abilities that might be put to use at work or can point to whether a person is likely to be happy in a particular working environment.
INTERNAL VALIDATION
see VALIDATION
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS (ISCO)
A classification of OCCUPATIONS developed by the International Labour Office (ILO) to provide a basis for the international comparison of occupational data and to afford guidance to countries wishing to develop or improve their systems of occupational classification. In addition to classifying occupations and groups of occupations, it defines them. Although it does not replace national classification systems, it seeks to set a standard of comparability for them.
INTER-PERSONAL SKILLS
see INTERACTIVE-SKILLS
INTERVENTION
In the context of ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT, the action taken by a third party or change agent in influencing the process of an organisation.
‘IN’ TRAY EXERCISES
see ‘IN’ BASKET/TRAY METHOD
JOB
All the TASKS carried out by a particular person in the completion of his/her prescribed duties. In a wider context the term also covers the social and physical environment in which it is carried out.
see ELEMENT (OF WORK), TASK and OCCUPATION.
JOB ANALYSIS/JOB STUDY
The process of examining a JOB in detail in order to identify its components TASKS. The detail and approach may vary according to the purpose for which the job is being analysed, e.g. TRAINING, equipment, design, work layout.
JOB DESCRIPTION
A broad statement of the purpose, scope, responsibilities and TASKS which constitute a particular JOB.
JOB DESIGN
The specification of the requirements of a JOB in such a way as to satisfy both its technological and organisational aspects and the social and personal needs of the worker.
JOB ENGINEERING
A term used to describe the procedure of fitting the JOB to the individual by changing duties and responsibilities, changing methods or procedures and equipment, changing the level of SKILL required. It may be an alternative to TRAINING, which fits the person to the job, or it may complement it.
see ERGONOMICS.
JOB ENLARGEMENT
Expansion of the JOB to produce, by restructuring or rotation, greater variety in the nature of the work, with the aim of increasing job satisfaction. Sometimes used synonymously with JOB ENRICHMENT.
JOB ENRICHMENT
The process of attempting to improve the motivational content of a JOB. Both TASK efficiency and personal satisfaction are involved, and the method specifically means building into jobs greater scope for personal achievement and recognition, as well as more challenging and responsible work.
JOB EVALUATION
A generic term covering methods of determining the relative worth of JOBS. The process enables jobs to be placed in rank order, which can be used as a basis for establishing a balanced remuneration system.
JOB INSTRUCTION BREAKDOWN (A TWI TERM)
An instructor’s note of the stages of a JOB, to be presented to a learner during TRAINING, including a note of safety and other key points relevant to each stage. Also known as Task Breakdown.
JOB ROTATION
This system is based upon the idea that people become most effective by having an opportunity to perform a wide variety of different jobs as part of their training or development programme.
JOB SPECIFICATION
A detailed statement, derived from the JOB ANALYSIS of the physical and mental activities involved in the job and of the environment within which the job is performed.
KEPNER TREGOE TRAINING
A form of TRAINING which helps participants to identify the ideal working situation. By using a systematic approach to the processes of problem-analysis and decision-making, they can identify deviations from the ideal. Developed by C.H. Kepner and B.B. Tregoe.
KEY RESULT ANALYSIS
An analysis of the key TASKS to be performed, the level of performance required, and controls and methods for measuring the level of performance against the required standard.
KEY RESULT AREA
A TASK or series of tasks within the compass of an individual’s JOB where:
1. Excellent performance might transform the efficiency of the organisation, or
2. Poor performance would significantly diminish its efficiency. It can also apply to the work of a group.
KINAESTHESIS
The sense which enables the position of the body and its limits to be known and movements to be made without being monitored by vision. The stimulation concerned with this sense arises from three types of receptors situated in the muscles at the junctions between and in muscle fibers and tendons.
KNOWLEDGE
In the context of a TRAINING PROGRAMME, that part which is concerned with imparting specific information needed in order to perform a TASK or JOB. It is commonly linked with the development of SKILLS and attitudes as the component parts of training OBJECTIVES.
KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS
see FEEDBACK.
LABOUR TURNOVER/MANPOWER STABILITY
The movement of employees in and out of an organisation during a given period. The customary formula for calculating the percentage of labour turnover is:
No. of leavers in the period x 100
The average number employed in the period
High labour turnover could be a factor in identifying a training need.
LANGUAGE LABORATORY
A room equipped with AUDIO AIDS for the teaching of languages; audio-active-comparative (listen-respond-compare); audio-active (listen-respond); and audio-passive (listen only). The laboratory is characterised by the isolation of the individual students either in booths or by headsets, which are normally linked to a central console for instructor control.
LASER HOLOGRAPHY
The use of laser techniques to produce an image showing the composition of an article or an assembly of parts in three dimensions. Its use is being developed in TRAINING when it is not practical or economic to have the article or a MODEL available.
LATERAL THINKING
A term introduced by Edward de Bono, and similar to the concept in psychology of divergent versus convergent thinking. Lateral, or divergent, thinking is free-ranging thinking about problems in which thought moves sideways into a variety of domains to find material for possible solutions, rather than staying in a single line of approach to the problem.
LEARNING
The process whereby individuals acquire KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS and attitudes, through experience, reflection, study, or instruction.
LEARNING CLIMATE/ENVIRONMENET
The total environment in which the learning takes place, which includes (for example) the attitudes of line managers, instructors and learners, the kind of room, learning aids and other facilities, the mental and physical health of the learners, etc.
LEARNING CURVE
A means of plotting the rate of progress of an individual or group in the form of a graph. Performance is plotted against time, and the rate of improvement over a period of time is shown. The accepted level of performance may be indicated on the graph, from which it can be seen when the trainee has consistently reached the required standard.
LEARNING PACKAGE
see PACKAGE
LEARNING PLATEAU
A temporary levelling-off in the progress of a trainee in the process of LEARNING below the required level of KNOWLEDGE OF SKILL
LEARNING UNIT
Used for the design and implementation of training related to the performance of a specific task, or learning outcome. A learning unit consists of:
a) Training objective
b) Entry Behaviour to specify what a learner should be able and willing to do
c) Learning Event where a selection of training methods and treatment is likely to satisfy the learning requirements of a learner to enable achievement of the objective.
d) Performance Assessment where a carefully designed criterion is used to assess the effectiveness of training is relation to the OBJECTIVES.
LECTURE
A straight talk or exposition, possibly using visual or other aids, but without group participation other than through questions at the conclusion.
see also LESSON
LESSON
A form of instruction incorporating a number of instructional techniques designed to ensure the participation of the learning group in reaching the specified BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES. This is frequently achieved by the use of question and answer.
LESSON PLAN
A statement of the essential component parts of the LESSON, laid out in logical, progressive, and practical sequence, and indicating the techniques to be used.
LIFE SKILLS
A term used to cover the skills needed to cope with everyday living at home and at work. A Life Skills course may include, on the one hand, training in how to use the telephone, to claim unemployment benefit, or to apply for a job, and on the other, such basic domestic skills as cooking a simple meal. The term encompassed SOCIAL SKILLS, but they are now considered as separate but complementary.
LIKERT SCALE
A RATING SCALE, devised by Rensis Likert, which allows the dispositions of individuals towards some given object or issue to be measured in terms of the direction and intensity of those dispositions. This is done by summing each individual’s responses/reactions to a series of favourable and unfavourable statements about that object or issue. For each statement, the individual says whether he or she:
a) Strongly approves;
b) Approves;
c) Disapproves; or
d) Strongly disapproves.
LIKERT THEORY
Likert distinguishes between authoritative and participative systems of management. He suggests that high productivity and efficiency are more compatible with a participative system of management and with employee-centred supervision than with an authoritative system of management and with job-centered supervision.
LINEAR PROGRAMME
A form of PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION consisting of a progressive sequence of instructional steps, each of which usually requires a constructed response from the student. The PROGRAMME is written and tested so that each step presents a degree of difficulty within the capacity of the TARGET POPULATION for which the programme is devised, and FRAMES follow a fixed sequence, irrespective of whether the student makes a correct or an incorrect response.
LOG BOOK
A record maintained by trainees of their progress through a TRAINING PROGRAMME.
LOGICAL TREE/DECISION TREE
A type of FLOW CHART for arriving at a correct decision. It is a sequence of simple sentences (or questions), ordered in a logical heirarchy from the most general to the most specific, in such a way that only those sentences need to be red which are relevant to a particular case. The nature of the individual case determines those sentences which are relevant from the total set of possible sentences.
see ALGORITHM
MAGNETIC BOARD
A sheet of steel which may be surfaced to serve as a chalk-board. Display material is fixed to the board by small magnets or magnetic strips. Similarly a board may be made of magnetic material to which steel display items will adhere. It is particularly useful for showing moving objects and for building up work FLOW CHARTS, organisational charts etc.
MANAGEMENT
The work of those people engaged in the direction and control of the activities of an organisation. They may be working at any level from the head of the organisation to first-line supervisor, but it is usual to distinguish between the duties of the manager and the supervisor. The duties of the manager are essentially concerned with discerning objectives and deciding priorities, devising and implementing means to carry them out successfully, and means to assess the results achieved. They supervisor is at the first or second level of the total managerial structure and is in charge, whether directly or indirectly, of a particular area of operations.
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)
A technique – attributed to John W. Humble – under which targets are fixed for individual managers as a basis for achieving greater effectiveness throughout the whole, or part, of an organisation. Factors impeding the attainment of these objectives are identified and action taken to overcome them. Results are periodically appraised and new targets set if necessary. See IMPROVING MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE (IMP).
MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT (MD)
Any attempt to improve managerial effectiveness through a planned and deliberate learning process.
MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT ADVISER (MDA)
A specialist in the process and techniques of MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT, employed either in an organisation or advising to improve managerial effectiveness.
MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT SCHEME
A systematic scheme in an organisation whereby the performance and potential of a manager or group of managers are developed by TRAINING, EDUCATION, and planned experience. The aim is to ensure that the organisation will have sufficient managers of the required calibre as are needed to meet the demands of the business.
MANAGEMENT GAME/EXERCISE
see BUSINESS GAME/EXERCISE
MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES (MHR)
see HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT SUCCESSION
A system whereby an organisation provides for a successor to the incumbent of each MANAGEMENT post. A ‘back-up’ chart shows, for each post, the job title, name and age of the present holder, plus the names of one or more suitable successors. The JOB DESCRIPTION and JOB SPECIFICATION for each post need to be associated with the documentation, and the whole system requires regular updating.
MANAGERIAL GRID
Part of a MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT technique which places each individual, as a result of assessments and exercises, on a two-dimensional graph (concern for people on one axis and concern for production on the other). Managers can be high on one scale and low on the other, or in any position between. The idea is that the conceptual framework enables each manager to gain insight by examining his own and other managers’ styles of behaviour. Developed by R.R. Blake and J.S.Mouton in the U.S.A.
see REDDIN 3-D THEORY
MANPOWER FORECASTING
1. Activities directed towards ascertaining future requirements for various types of manpower, and changes in occupational structure. Forecasting can be at national, industrial, or company level.
2. Predicting, on the best information available, the manpower needs of an organisation, usually three to five years ahead. Such a forecast can be the basis for optimum MANPOWER PLANNING.
MANPOWER STABILITY
see LABOUR TURNOVER
MASLOW THEORY
see HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
MATHETICS/BACKWARD CHAINING
A method of presenting information to be learned; reaching objectives by systematically taking apart the finished product. As an example, ‘backward chaining’ presents a complete sequence less the final step which has to be completed by the student; and next the same complete sequence without the final two steps – again, to be completed by the student; and so on, progressively, until the student is able unaided to reproduced the entire sequence.
MCGREGOR’S THEORY ‘X’ AND ‘Y’
see THEORY ‘X’ AND THEORY ‘Y’
MECHANISTIC SYSTEM
A management theory that interprets the industrial organisation as characterised by rigid breakdown into functional specialisms, with precise definition of duties, responsibilities, and power and a well-developed command hierarchy along which information filters up, and decisions and instructions flow down. Contrasts with ORGANIC SYSTEM.
MERIT RATING
The systematic assessment of the behaviour and/or performance of workers, usually based on such factors as work ability, dependability, timekeeping, leadership, etc. Often provides a basis for salary reviews and appraisal of personal and proficiency potential for future promotion. May also be used to determine fields in which further training would be useful to develop the individual’s abilities.
METHOD STUDY
The systematic recording and critical examination of the factors and resources involved in existing and proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and reducing costs.
MNEMONICS
The use of ‘key’ letters or rhymes to act as memory aids.
MODEL
1. A two – or three-dimensional representation of an object or group of objects incorporated in a system; often used as a teaching aid.
2. Also relates to an abstract representation of a system, such as a diagrammatic or mathematical model of the economy or a business situation.
MODELLING
1. A SOCIAL SKILLS training technique in which the learner observes and then tries to reproduce the execution of a social skill which has been enacted by a ‘MODEL’
2. The act of constructing a MODEL.
MODULE TRAINING
Separate TRAINING PROGRAMMES designed as a series to lead to a certain level of qualification or attainment, or as a related group from which PROGRAMMES may be chosen, according to need.
MONITORING
The comparison of performance with pre-set measures of achievement.
MOTOR ACTIVITY
The carrying out of a pattern of muscular activity concerned with the manipulating of an object, or with an observable response to a situation.
see SENSORY-MOTOR SKILLS
MULTI-MEDIA LEARNING
The integrated use of various communications media (print, audio-tape, film, slides, etc.) in the construction of a learning PROGRAMME, in such a way that each part of the information being taught is carried by the most appropriate medium. MULTI-SENSORY LEARNING AIDS.
Aids to communication, learning, teaching, remembering, and research, which utilise several senses – e.g. working models, SIMULATORS, and synthetic trainers.
MULTIPLE CHOICE TEST
A form of OBJECTIVE TEST which requires the learner to select the correct answer from a number of alternatives.
NORM-REFERENCE TEST
Used to assess learning following a course of instruction. It measures a learner’s relative standing along the continuum of attainment – e.g. in educational achievement examinations. It is used to order students in a class rather than to assess the attainment of specific CURRICULUM objectives. The test can assess the proficiency of learners one with the others; it does not assess how proficient they are with respect to the subject matter TASKS involved.
OBJECTIVES
A statement of the behaviour that a learner is expected to display during or at the end of training. It normally has three constituents: the performance required, the conditions under which the trainee must perform and the standard to which he/she must perform. Specific terms in use are:
- Training Objective: A statement of what a trainee must be able to do at the end of training.
- Enabling Objective: A statement of what a trainee must be able to do to enable him/her to achieve the desired training objective.
OBJECTIVE TEST
A test or examination in which every question is set in such a way as to have only one right answer. That is, the opinion of the examiner or marker does not enter into judging whether the answer is good, or poor, acceptable, or wrong; there is also no subjective element involved.
see MULTIPLE CHOICE TEST.
OBJECTIVE TRAINING
That part of the TRAINING SCHEME which is designed to develop expertise in a particular function in the employing firm.
OCCUPATION
A collection of jobs which are sufficiently similar with regard to their main TASKS included to be grouped together under a common title, for the purpose of identification and classification.
see JOB, TASK, and ELEMENT (OF WORK)
OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING
Training which takes place away from the normal work situation and day-to-day pressures. It is normally only part of the whole TRAINING PROGRAMME and is usually combined with ON-THE-JOB TRAINING and/or FURTHER EDUCATION.
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING (ON-SITE OR DESK TRAINING)
TRAINING given in the normal work situation. It may constitute the whole of the training or be combined with OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING and/or FURTHER EDUCATION.
OPEN LEARNING SYSTEM (OLS)
The aim of an open learning system is to increase educational or training opportunities for those excluded from traditional systems through educational, administrative, social, or psychological reasons. It is centred on the needs of the student.
see DISTANCE LEARNING
OPERANT CONDITIONING
This concept, associated with the work of the American psychologist, B.F. Skinner, arose from the dissatisfaction of the Behaviourist School of Psychology with the power of the ‘classical’ stimulus-response model to explain the rich variety of animal – including human – Behaviour. Skinner distinguished between two kinds of response – namely those that are ELICITED by known stimuli, and those that are EMITTED by the animal without any apparent connection with a known stimulus: this latter type of response he called an ‘operant’.
These emitted response/operants can be controlled by appropriate reinforcement or reward: then BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION occurs, through operant conditioning. Behaviour may of course be modified by other means - e.g. classical conditioning (Pavlov’s well-known experiments with dogs are a good example of this), BEHAVIOUR THERAPY, drug therapy, etc.
ORGANIC SYSTEM
An interpretation of the industrial organisation that gives general and informal definitions to the JOBS and responsibilities it contains. Under this system communications up and down the hierarchy are more in the nature of consultation than the delivery and reception of information and orders. Contrasts with MECHANISTIC SYSTEM.
ORGANISATION CHART
A graphic representation, usually in ‘family tree’ form, of the structure of an organisation, in terms of JOB titles and departments.
ORGANISATION AND METHODS (O AND M)
The systematic study of the structure of an organisation, its MANAGEMENT, control, procedures, and methods, undertaken to increase its efficiency.
ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT (OD)
A group of strategies and associated techniques centred on the longer-term development of the organisation as whole. Organisation development programmes examine questions of organisational climate and philosophy as well as structural and social factors using BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE theory as a base.
OUTDOOR DEVELOPMENT
A term embracing courses, projects, or experience, designed to improve people’s ability to understand themselves and to deal with demanding situations. The approach involves a personal challenge in unusual or difficult surroundings, the underlying assumption being that the experience alone results in self-learning taking place.
OVERHAD PROJECTOR
A projector which projects transparencies and solid objects (in silhouette) on to a screen located behind the operator in such a way that he/she can maintain visual contact with his/her audience. Material drawn or written with suitable crayons or felt-tipped pens on a sheet or roll of transparent acetate is similarly projected. The transparencies are usually made to fit the ground glass screen on top of the overhead projector which is approximately ten inches square. The projector can be used in normal lighting conditions.
OVERLEARNING
Learning in which repetition or practice has proceeded beyond the point necessary to achieve, in the short term, a desired criterion of behaviour (performance). Its purposes are to facilitate subsequent recall and in certain cases, to produce an instinctive, automatic, response to certain stimuli.
PACING, CONTROLLED RATE
Control of student’s rate of responding to a learning PROGRAMME by features built into the machine being used.
PACING, SELF
The situation in which the student controls the rate of presentation of new material when undertaking a learning programme.
PACKAGE
Information on a given subject presented in a variety of ways- e.g. programmed information, reading, case studies, films – within the one package. Particularly useful when a large number of trainees require general knowledge on a subject.
PART ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE
When a PART METHOD is used in training, there are various ways of assembling the parts so as to ensure that newly learned parts are integrated with parts learned previously, e.g.
- PROGRESSIVE PART assembly sequence: A,B,A + B,C,A + B + C,D, etc.
- CUMULATIVE PART sequence: A,A +B,A + B + C etc.
- Reverse cumulative (or reverse/backward chaining): Z,Y +Z,X + Y + Z etc.
- Isolated part method : A,B,C,D,E,F,G,A + B + C + D + E + F + G
‘Easy first’, ‘difficult first’, and ‘random’ may be combined with the methods shown above
PART METHOD
A method in which the operation to be learned is broken down into separate sections, each of which is taught and practised separately. When each part has been learned, the parts are brought together and practised in appropriate combinations until the whole operation has been mastered. Not all material can be broken down in this way.
see WHOLE METHOD and PART ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE.
PEER GROUP ASSESSMENT
The assessment of individuals by their equals in group.
PERCEPTUAL SKILLS
The ability to apprehend through the senses the relationship between events, information, ideas, thoughts, etc.
PERFORMANCE TEST
The assessment of an individual’s performance, in order to identify a training need or the effectiveness of training carried out. It can also be used for payment or promotion purposes. The appraisal can be by report, by the standard achieved in carrying out a particular TASK, by ranking with others, etc.
PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY (PCT)
The parent theory of the REPERTORY GRID, formulated by George A Kelly. The theory postulates that Man is a form of perpetual motion, and that the direction of his motion is controlled by ‘personal constructs’ which determine the ways in which some things are alike and, at the same time, different from other things. Each individual’s ‘personal construct system’ is unique and in a constant stage of development.
PERSONNEL SPECIFICATION
An interpretation of the JOB SPECIFICATION in terms of the kind of person suitable for the JOB. The characteristics are often set out on the lines of the NIIP SEVEN-POINT PLAN.
PHASE TESTING
A system of tests by which the attainment of approved standards is measured throughout a period of TRIANING.
see MODULE TRAINING.
PLANNED EXPERIENCE
Supervised practice and experience in the normal work situation carefully planned as an integral part of the TRINING PROGRAMME to develop and consolidate the ATTITUDE/KNOWLEDGE/SKILL BEHAVIOUR PATTERN already acquired, on or off the job, or to provide the basis for FURTHER TRIANING in more specialised JOBS.
PLATEAU
see LEARNING PLATEAU.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
A technique to obtain performance improvement or behaviour change, by stressing the rewards of ‘good’ performance rather than the punishment of negative or ‘bad’ performance.
see REINFORCEMENT
POST-TEST
A test administered at the end of a learning situation (SESSION, course or TRAINING PROGRAMME) to ascertain whether the BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE has been reached. Together with the PRE-TEST it is also used for VALIDATION purposes.
PRE-TEST
A test administered before a learning situation (SESSION, course, or TRAINING PROGRAMME) to ascertain existing levels of competence (of ATTITUDE/KNOWLEDGE/SKILL BEHAVIOUR PATTERN) and to confirm that the trainee is able to enter the learning situation.
see CRITERION TEST
PROCESS CONSULTATION
A method of intervention into an organisation or group of people which enables them to retain responsibility for their problems and evolve solutions as opposed to the consultant providing a solution.
PROCESS FEEDBACK
Information normally fed into a group by a third party on the relationships, levels of involvement in the group, clarity of aims, etc. to help the group concentrate on how it is performing as well as what it is doing. Groups can be developed in such a way as to carry out their own process review.
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION/LEARNING (PI/PL)
A form of instruction/teaching in which the following factors are present:
a) There is a clear statement of exactly what the trainee is expected to be able to do at the end of the PROGRAMME.
b) The material to be learned, which has been itemized and tested, is presented serially in identifiable steps or FRAMES.
c) Trainees follow sequence of frames which may be determined according to their individual needs;
d) Frequent and unambiguous responses are usually required from each student/trainee throughout the whole sequence;
e) FEEDBACK of information about the correctness or otherwise of responses is usually given to the student before the next frame is presented.
PROGRAMMED TEXT
A piece of PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION, presented in the form of a text – e.g. a book, as opposed to presentation by a teaching machine, such as a computer.
PROGRESSIVE-PART METHOD
see PART ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE.
PROJECT WORK
A form of exercise leading to the accomplishment, often within a fixed time, of a definite TASK – e.g. a report containing recommendations on a stated problem or the design and manufacture of equipment to a given specification.
PROJECTOR
An instrument which projects transparencies, FILMSTRIPS or moving film, with or without sound, on to a screen.
PSYCHO-DRAMA
A participative group learning technique which involves the enactment of situations which are stressful or problematic to a given member of the group. Other members of the group under the guidance of the leader, may take the ROLES of other people in the enacted situation and can even take the role of the individual whose problem is being explored. In this way, the individual may see his problem through the eyes of others, and achieve a resolution.
PSYCHOMETRIC TEST
A means of measuring particular psychological characteristics of a person, usually presented as quantified data. Such tests are built up from empirical and statistical analysis.
RATING SCALES
These are variously used for measuring individuals’ APTITUDES, abilities, behaviour or attitudes, such a scale consists of a series of categories or points, and an individual being tested is invited to indicate which marking seems most appropriate for a particular quality or item.
Examples are the LIKERT and THURSTONE SCALES.
REDDIN 3 – D THEORY
An extension of Blake’s MANAGERIAL GRID by adding to the two dimensions of ‘task-orientation’ and ‘people-orientation’ a third dimension of ‘effectiveness’.
REINFORCEMENT
The process of providing a trainee with information, reward, or punishment, in response to the success or failure of his/her performance of a TASK, with the purpose of encouraging a desired pattern of behaviour.
see POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT.
REPERTORY GRID TECHNIQUE
A particular form of structured interview (or questionnaire) used to explore the content and structure of a person’s value judgement. Systematic comparisons are drawn between chosen ‘elements’ (e.g. people, things, events, ideas) to bring out the ‘constructs’ or qualities which an individual uses to discriminate between different parts of his/her world. Originally developed by George A. Kelly for use in clinical psychology as an application of his ‘PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY’.
RE-TRAINING
Training for an OCCUPATION other than one for which the trainee was prepared originally, or in some cases for a NEW JOB or part of a job. When the re-training is for an occupation calling for SKILLS which are basically the same as those used in the trainee’s previous occupation the term ‘conversion training’ is sometimes used.
ROLE
How the occupant of a particular position in an organisation expects, or is expected, to behave.
ROLE PLAYING
A learning technique in which students are presented with a situation which they are required to explore by acting out the ROLES of those represented in this situation.
SAFETY TRAINING
That part of training concerned with ensuring that trainees habitually adopt safe working practices.
SELF DEVELOPMENT
The concept that individuals have a responsibility for their own development.
SELF DIAGNOSIS
A structural exercise or experience which will give an individual increased self understanding, without the intervention of another person.
SELF INSTRUCTION
Material, such as programmed texts, from which a trainee can learn without close supervision.
SELF-PRESENTATION COURSE
A course designed to develop in the participants the basic practical SKILLS necessary for successful job-hunting.
SEMINAR
A short course or conference making extensive use of participative methods and devoted to the exclusive study of one subject.
SENSITIVITY TRAINING
see T-GROUP TRAINING
SENSORY-MOTOR SKILL
SKILL dependent on the co-ordination of the sensory and motor systems of the body – e.g. ‘hand-eye coordinator’; an essential component of all the most basic manual operation.
SESSION
A period within a training course, the length of which is determined by a variety of technical factors (e.g. nature of subject matter, type of trainee and scope for active participation) and administrative factors (e.g. length of working day, meal and other breaks). A session might last between 30 and 90 minutes.
SET
1. Predisposition to behave in a certain way.
2. In the context of ACTION LEARNING programmes, a small group (usually four to six people) who meet periodically to discuss the progress or problems of their particular projects. An experienced ‘set adviser’ is normally allotted to each group.
SIMULATED TRAINING
The training provided in a specially created environment which reproduces the important conditions of the working situation, in which formal instruction can be followed and opportunity given for practicing and applying the SKILLS learned in workshop or classroom. It may include work on plant or equipment withdrawn from the working situation for training purposes and/or specially designed SIMULATORS.
SIMULATION
1. The representation of the essential characteristics of a system by means of a simpler one. In particular, the representation of physical phenomena by computers or by other equipment such as MODELS, to facilitate the study of these phenomena.
2. The acting out of human relationships to help to understand individual behaviour and its effect on others.
SIMULATOR
A device which presents the trainee with a representation of the important features of the real situation and reproduces operational conditions which enable him/her to practice directly safely, and economically, TASKS which cannot be so practiced on the JOB itself – e.g. a flight simulator.
SKILL
An organized and co-ordinated pattern of mental and/or physical activity in relation to an object, person, event or display of information. Skills may be described as perceptual, motor, manual, intellectual, social, etc. according to the context or the most important aspect of the skill pattern.
SKILLS ANALYSIS
A detailed and systematic study of the SKILLS needed to perform a particular TASK, which leads directly to the formulation of a TRAINING PROGRAMME. It can also refer to the determination of the cues, responses, and decision-making functions involved in performing a skill.
SKILLS AUDIT
A checklist of SKILLS required in a particular JOB or possessed by a certain individual.
SKILLS SPECIFICATION
A statement of the SKILLS required to carry out a particular TASK or JOB. This is a basic requirement for the formulation of a TRAINING PROGRAMME.
SLIDE/TAPE PRESENTATION
An audio-visual presentation in which the slide sequence is linked with a taped commentary. The changing of slides can be done manually or automatically linked with the tape.
SOCIAL SKILLS
The skills involved in forming successful relationships with other people.
see SKILL, INTER-ACTIVE SKILLS AND LIFE SKILLS.
SOFTWARE
1. A term used to describe codes, PROGRAMS, etc. used to instruct a computer and to distinguish them from the physical apparatus itself.
2. Teaching material (e.g. slides, MAGNETIC TAPE) produced for use with specific educational equipment, such a PROJECTORS and CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION systems.
see HARDWARE.
SPATIAL ABILITY
Ability to judge and manipulate mentally shapes and sizes.
STIMULUS DEVICE
A type of teaching aid which presents materials to the subject through one or several of the senses. No specific response is required from the student during the presentation of the materials.
see STIMULUS-RESPONSE DEVICE.
STIMULUS-RESPONSE DEVICE
A teaching aid which not only presents material to the subject through any or several of the senses, but also requires a response from the student in order to progress further in the programme of instruction.
SUPERVISOR
see MANAGEMENT
SUPPLEMENTARY TRAINING
see UPGRADING TRAINING.
SYLLABUS
An outline of the main points of a course or formal learning experience.
see CURRICULUM.
SYMPOSIUM
A gathering, usually of one or two days’ duration, to hear and discuss contributions by authorities in a particular subject.
SYNDICATE
A small group of students formed to consider and to report on a question, problem, or exercise, set as part of a training course. The object of the exercise is to promote learning by means of intra and inter-group analysis and discussion.
SYNECTICS
An approach to encouraging uninhibited creative thinking in a group. There is often evaluation and discussion, so as to develop the best solutions from the apparently unconnected ideas of group members.
SYSTEMATAIC APPROACH TO TRAINING
Training undertaken on a planned basis as a result of applying a logical series of steps. In practice, the number and description of these steps tends to vary, but in general terms they would cover such aspects as :
- Development of training policy
- Identification of training needs
- Development of training objectives and plans
- Implementation of planned training
- Validation, evaluation and review of training.
SYSTEMS
Systems methods involve identifying the components of operational systems, their interfaces, and interrelations, then identifying the objectives of the system and finally breaking this down to the contributions made by components and sub-systems.
T-GROUP TRAINING
A particular method of behavioural SKILLS training, based on highly participative learning methods, whose purpose is to improve trainees’ skills in:
a) Appreciating how others are reacting to one’s own behaviour;
b) Gauging the state of relationships between others;
c) Carrying out skillfully the behaviour required by the situation.
The approach is essentially unstructured. The terms sensitivity training, GROUP DYNAMIC training and GROUP RELATIONS training are sometimes used.
see ENCOUNTER GROUPS and EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING.
TACTUAL
Derived from, or relating to, the sense of touch.
TARGET POPULATION
That group or range of trainees for whom a particular TRAINING PROGRAMME is designed.
TASK
A major ELEMENT OF WORK or a combination of elements of work by means of which a specific result is achieved.
see JOB and OCCUPATION.
TASK ANALYSIS
A systematic analysis of the behaviour required to carry out a TASK with a view to identifying areas of difficulty and the appropriate training techniques and learning aids necessary for successful instruction.
TASK BREAKDOWN
see JOB INSTRUCTION BREAKDOWN
TASK GROUP
A selected group of people formed to carry out a specific TASK.
TEACHING/INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN
A detailed chronological breakdown in terms of OBJECTIVE, content, and method for a given SESSION within a TRAINING course or PROGRAMME.
TERMINAL BEHAVIOUR
The actual behaviour registered by a student at the end of the TRAINING PROGRAMME. The difference between this and CRITERION BEHAVIOUR is a measure of the effectiveness of the training programme.
TEST
A standardized type of written or practical examination, given to a group or individual.
THEORY ‘X’
The traditional view of direction and control. It contains three assumptions:
- That the average human will avoid work if he can;
- He must be corrected and directed;
- He has no ambition and prefers to avoid responsibility.
This theory leads to restrictive discipline and close managerial control (but see THEORY ‘Y’)
THEORY ‘Y’
The opposite of THEORY ‘X’. The assumptions are that physical and mental effort are natural, that controls and threats are not necessary to get people to work, that self-satisfaction is an important factor, that people can learn to take responsibility, that ingenuity is a widely distributed quality in people, and that in the prevailing conditions of industrial life, human potential is being only partly utilised. This should lead to a form of managerial control that seeks to develop and maximize individual skills and potential. These theories were formulated by Douglas McGregor.
THURSTONE SCALE.
(Also referred to as the method of equal-appearing intervals). A particular RATING SCALE used to record an individual’s attitude towards a given object or issue. The individual indicates the extent of personal agreement with various statements, with these ‘pro’ or ‘anti’ responses being measured in the form of a score on a numerical scale ( from 1 to 11 ) representing extremes of attitude.
see LIKERT SCALE
TRAINABILITY TEST
A validated test designed to assess whether a JOB applicant has the potential to reach a satisfactory standard after training. The applicant is required to perform an appropriate, carefully designed, short TASK after being given prior instruction.
TRAINED WORKER STANDARD (TWS)
The BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES specified for a normally off-job TRAINING PROGRAMME which concentrates on these TASKS which have been demonstrated by analysis to be most frequent, difficult and critical in the actual JOB. Trained worker standard may differ from EXPERIENCES WORKDER STANDARD in that, although learning of these tasks may be rapid, EWS may be reached only after considerable on-the-job practice.
TRAINING
A planned process to modify attitude, KNOWLEDGE or SKILL behaviour through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose, in the work situation, is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy the current and future manpower needs of the organisation. The phrase ‘learning experience’ emphasizes that there is no clear dividing line between training EDUCATION, and the importance of integration.
TRAINING BAY
Area, within a factory of other work place, reserved for training purposes.
TRAINING BUDGET
see BUDGETARY CONTROL
TRAINING FUNCTION
The specialized activity of TRAINING within a working organisation. The four main steps are the:
- IDENTIFICATION OF TRAINING NEEDS in terms of JOBS and people;
- Formulation of training OBJECTIVES, policy and plans for the consideration of management;
- Implementation of the training process, using the most appropriate systems, methods and aids;
- ASSESSMENT OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS.
The steps are taken in the context of three broad groups of social factors:
- Legislation;
- The education system;
- The purposes, activities, structure of, and relationships within, the working organisation itself.
TRAINING INSTRUCTOR
see TRAINING STAFF.
TRAINING MANAGER/DIRECTOR
see TRAINING STAFF
TRAINING MANUAL
A guide for the use of training staff and, where appropriate, of trainees, showing in detail the subject areas, OBJECTIVES and standards to be achieved; content and methods of instruction; equipment and materials to be used; the form of records to be kept and of TESTS to be administered
TRAINING MODULE
see MODULE TRAINING
TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS
see IDENTIFICATION OF TRAINING NEEDS
TRAINING OBJECTIVE
see OBJECTIVES and BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES
TRAINING OFFICER (TO)
see TRAINING STAFF.
TRAINING PROGRAMME
A schedule of the TRAINING SPECIFICATION in terms of units of instruction or learning experience, set out in chronological sequence and showing the time allowed for each, the place, the method of instruction to be used, and the person responsible for giving it.
TRAINING SCHEME
The complete learning arrangements developed for a category of staff and involving a particular sequence of training, which may include education and training (both on and off the job), planned experience, projects assignments etc.
see TRAINING SPECIFICATION
TRAINING SPECIFICATION
A detailed statement of what a trainee needs to learn, based on a comparison between the JOB SPECIFICATION and the individual’s present level of competence.
see TRAINING SCHEME
TRAINING STAFF
Those people with specialist full-time or part-time responsibilities for managing, organising, advising on, developing or carrying out training. Job titles themselves may not indicate either the scope of, or the level of responsibility of, particular JOBS.
TRAINING SYLLABUS
see SYLLABUS
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS (TA)
Developed originally as an approach to therapy by Dr. Eric Berne, transactional analysis classifies discrete inter-personal behavioural patterns – or ‘transactions’ – according to so-called ‘ego states’ (the main ones being labelled Parent, Adult and Child). Since it can be seen as a theory of communication between people, as well as of individual personality, it is used in a training context for improving SOCIAL SKILLS in business settings.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
This occurs whenever the existence of a previously established habit or SKILL has an influence upon the acquisition, performance or re-learning of another habit or skill. ‘Positive transfer’ occurs when the existence of the previous habit or skill facilitates learning the new one; ‘negative transfer’ refer to the interference on new learning of a previous habit or skill.
TUTOR
A person who gives KNOWLEDGE and guidance to an individual or small group of trainees in an off-the-job informal training situation.
UPGRADING TRAINING
Training for supplementary KNOWLEDGE and SKILL in order to increase the versatility and occupational mobility of a worker. It is sometimes referred to a ‘supplementary training’. It may include the acquisition of skill in a related trade or OCCUPATION. The term is also used in its original sense for moving a worker up in a grade within the general framework of a trade or occupation.
VALIDATION (OF A TRAINING PROGRAMME)
1. Internal validation. A series of TESTS and assessments designed to ascertain whether a TRAINING PROGRAMME has achieved the BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES specified.
2. External validation. A series of TESTS and assessments designed to ascertain whether the BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES of an internally valid TRAINING PROGRAMME were realistically based on an accurate initial IDENTIFICATION OF TRAINING NEEDS in relation to the criteria of effectiveness adopted by the organisation.
3. In PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION, validation is the verification of a PROGRAMME by means of TESTS which demonstrate whether the actual behaviour of a fully representative sample of the TARGET POPULATION at the end of the TRAINING PROGRAMME is commensurate with the stipulated CRITERION BEHAVIOUR. Where it is not commensurate, the programme is revised until it is shown to be effective against the CRITERION TEST.
VALIDITY (OF TESTS)
The extent to which a TEST measures what it is intended to measure. The different types of validity are:
- Predictive
- Concurrent
- Content
- Construct
- Synthetic, and
- Face validity.
VISUAL AIDS
Aids to communication, learning, teaching, remembering and research, which utilize the sense of sight, e.g. books, diagrams, FLIPCHARTS, OVERHEAD PROJECTORS, silent films, TEACHING MACHINES or MODELS.
WHITEBOARD
A substitute for the blackboard or chalkboard made of white plastic for use with felt-tipped pens or other suitable writing instruments.
WHOLE METHOD
A method in which there is continual repetition of instruction or practice on the entire operation to be learned until proficiency is reached.
WORK STUDY
A generic term for those techniques, particularly METHOD STUDY and WORK MEASUREMENT, which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts.
