Experiential Learning Tools

Table of Contents

1. The Theme
2. The Participants
3. The Aim
4. The Objectives
5. The Content
6. The Duration
7. The Study Material
8. The Language
9. The Learning Group
10. The Schedule
11. The Validation
12. The Certification
13. SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO TRAINING
    1. Objectives:
    2. Identify Training Needs
    3. Plan and Design Training
    4. Implement Training
    5. Assess Results
    6. Aims and Objectives
14. The SAT AND BEYOND…
    1. The Systematic Training Cycle
    2. Transitional Model of Harry Taylor- An Alternative Model
    3. LEARNING COMMUNITY & LEARNING ORGANIZATION
    4. Objectives:
    5. Learning Community
    6. Communities of Practices
    7. Action learning
    8. Learning to learn
15. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
    1. Objectives: After reading this article, you will be able to:
    2. THE PREMISE
    3. THE KOLB MODEL OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
    4. Learning Abilities
    5. Learning Activities
    6. Learning Styles
    7. Trainer Roles
16. FIELD VISIT
    1. Objectives: After reading this article, you will be able to:
    2. Introduction
    3. Where can Field Visit be used
    4. Criteria for selection of Field Visit
    5. Sequencing Field Visit in a training course
    6. Alternatives for scheduling the Field Visit*
    7. Unfilled boxes indicate use of other training methods.
    8. How to use Field Visits
    9. Prior to the Field Visit
    10. During the Field Visit
    11. After the Field Visit
    12. Designing a Learning Intervention using a Field Visit
    13. Organising a field visit
    14. Objective
    15. Performance Assessment
17. TRAINING METHOD SELECTION
    1. What is a Training Method?
    2. Factors influencing Selection
18. THE CASE STUDY METHOD
    1. Objective of the case study method:-
    2. Selecting a Case
    3. What makes a good Case Study? 
    4. The role of Case Leader or Facilitator
    5. Active Listening
    6. Debriefing
19. SKILL DEVELOPMENT EXERCISE
    1. Introduction
    2. Individual exercises
    3. Group Exercises
    4. Preparation of exercise material
20. ROLE PLAY
    1. Objectives: 
    2. What it is?
    3. When to use a Role Play
    4. How to Choose a role play
    5. How to conduct Role Plays?
21. GLOSSARY OF COMMONLY USED TRAINING TERMS
22. Bibliography:
23. Selected Readings:

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The Theme

Organisations face continuous social and economic transition and hence require professional renewal in keeping with and anticipating the pace of change. Training contributes to this demand for enhanced learning and change capability. The paradigm shift in the training-process, from the trainer-centred approach to the learner-centred approach is well established all over the globe. There is voluminous literature available now on how individuals learn and how they can be supported in their organisation to keep learning. Experiential Learning Tools (ELT) seeks to create an opportunity for enabling the learner to appreciate the principle of learner-ownership and to learn moving through the experiential learning cycle.

The Participants

ELT has been designed for individuals who, as part of their duties, have some training functions and responsibilities. This course has been designed for the benefit of direct trainers.

The Aim

ELT aims at equipping the participants with skills relevant to the learner-centred training process through the mode of Experiential Learning; particularly in the application of identified training methodologies namely Case Study, Field Visit and Role Play; besides appropriately using Skill Development Exercises.

The Objectives

By the end of the course, participants will be able to:

1. Describe the four stages in Systematic Approach to Training.

2. Identify the areas of concern in Systematic Approach to Training.

3. State the Transitional Model of Harry Taylor.

4. Describe the concept of learning community and learning organisation.

5. Describe the use of contracting in framing training objective.

6. State Experiential Learning Methodology.

7. Select appropriate training methods.

8. Describe the use of Field Visit as a training method in facilitating learners to learn.

9. Plan a Field Visit.

10. Describe the uses, advantages and disadvantages of Case Study as a training method.

11. Plan a Case Study session.

12. Run a case using Case Study Method.

13. Assess a Case Study session.

14. Describe uses of Skill Development Exercise.

15. Devise Skill Development Exercise.

16. Assess the efficacy of Skill Development Exercise with reference to task, time, monitoring mechanism, learning and achievement.

17. Describe the uses, advantages and disadvantages of Role Play as a training method.

18. Plan a Role Play session.

19. Conduct a session using Role Play.

20. Assess a Role Play session.

The Content

The Systematic Approach to Training (SAT) and areas of concern in the Systematic Approach to Training, which informs the current training practices in the country, would constitute the starting point of ELT and the following segments would be covered during the course:

    • The Systematic Approach to Training
    • The Transitional Model of Harry Taylor (SAT and Beyond)
    • The Kolb Model of Experiential Learning.
    • Selection of a training method / combination of training methods.
    • Application of training methodologies namely Case Study, Field Visit and Role Play.
    • Application of Skill Development Exercises.

The Duration

The course will be implemented in a span of five working (0930 hrs to 1730 hrs) days.

The Study Material

The following study materials have been included for immediate use and future reference by the participants:

    1. Systematic Approach to Training
    2. SAT and Beyond…
    3. Learning Community & Learning Organization
    4. Experiential Learning
    5. Field Visit
    6. Training Method Selection
    7. Case Study
    8. Skill Development Exercise
    9. Role Play
    10. Glossary of Commonly Used Training Terms
    11. Select ReadingsThe Methodology

• A pre-course assignment about the current training practices in the country including the Systematic Approach to Training.

• Guided reading - reading and exploring all the articles included in Study-material, during the currency of the course.

• Learner centred training methodology based on experiential learning to generate an environment conducive to effective learning.

• Setting objectives for each content segment through the process of “Contracting”.

• Developing a learning community through practicing the principles of learner-ownership.

• Individual & Group work and Preparatory assignments for next day.

• Micro sessions involving application of select training methods.

The Language

The training course will be conducted through the medium of a mixed language of Hindi and English facilitating unhindered interaction across the board.

The Learning Group

12-16 participants and a team of 2 facilitators would form the learning group on an ELT Course.

The Schedule

A tentative schedule of the course is given below for implementation subject to local suitability:

The Validation

Course validation will be carried out through administering an “Immediate Reaction Questionnaire” and oral feedback.

The Certification

Based on consistent performance during the course, a certificate of successful participation will be given to each participant.

SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO TRAINING

Training has been defined in the Glossary of Training Terms as “a planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behavior through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose in the work situation is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy current and future manpower needs of the organization”. It clearly implies that the role of training is to improve the overall performance of the organization. The term ‘performance’ is, therefore, interwoven with training.

Training is a planned process that directs learning towards achieving specific outcomes, leading to achieving performance objectives. The Systematic Approach to Training infers that training is done in a planned, systematic way, and that it is directed towards improving job performance.

Organisation has to contend with many problems every day, and training is only one option they may choose to use to solve these problems.

Instead of the training option they could choose to send for work study experts, or systems analysts, or they might invest in new plant and machinery, or they may hire newly fully trained staff. The training option and the four steps in the systematic approach to training must be closely associated with real and not imaginary performance problems. Fig. 1 illustrates the relationship.

Objectives:

After reading this article, you will be able to:

    • Describe the four stages in Systematic Approach to Training
    • Distinguish between Aim and Objective
    • Clarify Performance Objective, Training Objective and Enabling Objective
    • Describe elements of an Objective
    • Write Objectives in behavioural terms

Fig. 1

We can recall this concept through the following acronym:

            I - Identified
            N - Need
            D - Design
            I - Implement
            A - AssessIdentify Training Needs

Identify Training Needs

    Improving performance or overcoming performance problems may occur in organisations, departmental, or with individuals. The first stage of the Systematic Approach Training is therefore to use various types of analysis to identify the nature of the problems, as precisely as possible. Techniques used for identifying training needs range from the general to the specific:

a) Organisational Training Needs Analysis is used to consider such questions as policy, productivity, new technology and cost escalation. Rarely can these issues be dealt with in isolation. This type of analysis will identify performance problems and how training can contribute to improvement.

b) Job Analysis takes the analytical process a stage further by investigating in more detail the jobs people do. This will provide information, for example, about tasks they perform, areas of responsibilities and relationships with others. Other disciplines also use job analysis (e.g. job evaluation, and recruitment and selection).

c) Task Analysis investigates the procedures, knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to ensure satisfactory performance of a job's key tasks.

A task is an element of work leading to a specific results. Tasks are work related activities, where each task should have a clearly defined beginning and an end. Some examples of tasks:

                • Interviewing a client
                • Writing a letter
                • Formulating projects.

For systematic training to be effective in meeting performance problems, it is essential that all three types of analysis, as illustrated below in Fig. 2, are either done, or considered. Using them with a degree of discretion is equally important, recognising the contribution each can make, but balancing this against the time and costs incurred.

Fig 2

Plan and Design Training

Once we have identified training needs, we can plan and design appropriate training. Some problems and needs may fall within existing training provision. Others require special attention. A training intervention takes account of the full extent of training needed to help people to improve their performance. We can plan these for groups or for individuals, and they can vary in duration from a few days to a year or more. All training interventions should have one feature in common, which is that they have not been completed until satisfactory performance has been attained.

This stage of the systematic approach to training is concerned with planning the best use of available training resources and using them to design training activities. These have to be planned within constraints such as budgets, operational demands, facilities, availability of personnel and so on.

Implement Training

Within the systematic approach to training, this is the stage where people undertake learning activities. This requires the active, wholehearted participation of the trainee, supported by skilled facilitation. The degree to which the trainee is willing to participate in training activities depends on such factors as whether:

- The trainee recognises the need for training- The trainee is sufficiently motivated to learn
- During implementation this motivation is maintained or increased
- The design of learning events is realistic within the context of the organisation
- Clearly defined objectives are used to direct learning activities
- The trainers possess sufficient technical and instructional skills

- Personnel in the organisation who are associated with the training activities, (management, supervisors and colleagues) support the application and development of newly acquired knowledge, skills and attitudes

The success of the implementation stage relies on these and many other factors. It is the often fragile process by which learning is organised and the means by which performance problems are resolved.

Assess Results

Training is only as good as the results it achieves and the benefits derived from it by individuals and their organisations. The fourth and final stage is therefore to assess and evaluate the results obtained from training activities. This may depend upon the terms of reference and data being used for measurement, and the extent to which this is common to the people involved - trainers, trainees, line management, general management, training agencies, etc.

Assessment needs to answer three basic questions:

        1. Did the training achieve what it tried to achieve?
        2. Did the training improve performance or solve the problem?
        3. Was the training worthwhile?

Aims and Objectives

For all training activities it is essential that there is a clearly defined purpose. Everybody concerned – management, learners and trainers should understand the intention of the training and the outcomes to be achieved.

The aim is the statement of intent. It describes what you intend the learners to achieve, and communicates this intention to all concerned. The intention, or aim, of the training is to help the person to perform the task of e.g. using the bow to shoot an arrow at the target. The outcome is for the arrow to be in or near the bull. It would be pointless to have only an aim, for example, ‘How to use a bow and arrow’, without having a clear performance in mind. This is the objective which, for example states that on completion of training the person will be able to shoot 3 out of 4 arrows in the bulls-eye from 100m, in calm conditions. The aim expresses intention and the objective defines achievement. Thus objective is what will be achieved as the outcome of the training, expressed in terms of the performance of a task.

There is some basic difference between aim of the training and training objective. We should get it clarified at this stage. The aim of a course or training programme is the statement of intent. It describes what you intend that the learners should achieve and communicates this intention to all concerned. The objective is what will be achieved as an outcome of the training, expressed in terms of performance.

Objectives

The objective provides a clear, precise and unambiguous statement of what learners can do at the following three distinct, but very important points in their training:

1. On their return to work, when they are required to perform the task to the standards set by an employer. The objective used to describe this is called a Performance Objective.

2. On completion of their formal training, typically a course, when they have achieved a satisfactory standard of performance under training conditions. The objective used to describe this is called a Training Objective.

3. On completion of a stage of the learning process when they have acquired certain knowledge and skills. The objective used to describe this is called an Enabling Objective.

Fig 3

Elements of an Objective

An objective is a precise, clear statement of what the learners will be able to do at the end of the training. So an objective is a statement of the performance to be achieved by the trainee. As and when required it includes performance, conditions and standards.

1. Performance

A statement of the performance to be achieved by the trainee. This enables the acquisition of knowledge and the development of skills to be focused only on what is essential. It should fulfill the following criteria:-

    S – Specific

    M – Measurable
    A – Attainable
    R – Realistic
    T – Time specific

Examples of Performance Statements

• The Trainee will be able to type
• The Assistants will be able to list the principles of noting and drafting.
• The Junior Analyst will be able to draw an organisation chart.
• The Senior Analyst will be able to carry out method study in an organisation.
• The Trainee will be able to process data for generating different charts using MS Excel.
• The Income Tax Inspectors will be able to list modes of tax recovery.
• The Krishi Prajukti Sahayak will be able to explain the procedure of identification of beneficiaries for various agricultural development programmes
• The Dealing Assistant will be able to demonstrate the procedure for posting leave in the account.

2. Condition

A statement of the conditions under which it is being done. This enables the learning event and assessment to include conditions needed for effective transfer to job performance. It includes

    a) The range of learning to be covered.
    b) The tools, equipment and clothing to be used.
    c) The performance aids and manuals that cannot be used.
    d) The environmental conditions.
    e) Any special, physical demands.

Examples of Condition Statements

        • The Assistants will be able to run Ms-Office software.
        • He will be able to shoot a target with his AK47 gun.

3. Standard

A statement of the minimum standards of performance a trainee must attain. This enables us to check accurately if the trainee has achieved the objective. Standards will be classified as ones of

        a) Speed
        b) Accuracy

Examples of Speed Standards

        • The trainee will be able to type 30 words per minute.
        • The trainee will be able to open one service book in not more than one hour’s time.
        • The trainee will be able to prepare pay bill using computer in one day.

Examples of Accuracy Standards

• The trainee will be able to type 30 words per minute without error.
• The trainee will be able to hit the target with 2 errors per 100 attempts.

Writing Performance Related Objectives

An objective is a statement of what the learner will be able to do on completion of training. The statement describes and defines what the learner will have to accomplish in order to demonstrate competence. Writing objectives is an essential feature of effective training as they provide a means of communication between the trainer and the learner. When writing objectives the following points may be kept in mind:

i. Each statement should deal with a single, specific task.

ii. Avoid repetition of “be able to” or “the learner will” or other such phrases at the beginning of each statement, when the objectives are given in a list. It wastes time and space, because all the objectives should be written in terms of what the learner will be able to do.

iii. A learner and the trainer should be able to read the statement, and relate it to a specific task.

iv. Use only acceptable terminology which is familiar to the people concerned.

v. Try to avoid using double verbs, such as “remove and repair”. Use the more inclusive of the two (repair implies removing and replacing).

vi. Do not include any phrases that have to do with the knowledge needed to perform the task; focus on the skill. Knowledge is not observable so, for example, do not say “Will know Russian”, say instead “Will speak Russian”, or “Will write Russian”.

vii. Avoid repeating any mention of performing a skill safely. Safety, whether it is procedures or general knowledge of it, will be an integral part of training. The safety requirements may need to be specified in the standards.

viii. Avoid vague and flowery terms such as “correctly”, “accurately”, and so on. The objective specifies competence to perform a task, to a precise standard. The level of accuracy required for example, should be specified.

All statements of objectives, whether they are Performance, Training or Enabling, must include an ‘active verb’, that clearly states what the learner is able to do. Active verbs can either be focused on knowledge or skill and the following lists may be of assistance.

Accept	Conduct	Find	Manage	Relate	Treat
Adapt	Connect	Fit	Mark	Remain	Troubleshoot
Adjust	Construct	Fix	Match	Remove	Turn
Administer	Contrast	Follow	Measure	Renovate	Type
Adopt	Convert	Form	Meet	Repair	Unlock
Align	Cook	Formulate	Mention	Repeat	Untangle
Allow	Copy	Free	Mix	Replace	Use
Alter	Correct	Freeze	Moderate	Reply	Utilise
Analyse	Correlate	Generalise	Modify	Report	Validate
Answer	Create	Get	Mount	Resist	Ventilate
Apply	Cut	Give	Name	Resolve	Verify
Appraise	Decide	Go	Negotiate	Respond
Arrange	Define	Grade	Obtain	Restate
assemble	Demonstrate	Greet	Open	Review
Assert	Describe	Group	Operate	Revise
Assess	Design	Hand	Order	Rework
Assist	Determine	Handcuff	Organise	Roll
Associate	Develop	Handle	Originate	Run
Attach	Devise	Haul	Override	Schedule
Bake	Diagnose	Heal	Package	Select
Balance	Diagram	Help	Perform	Sell
Bend	Differentiate	Hide	Pick	Serve
Boil	Direct	Identify	Pin	Set
Bore	Discuss	Illustrate	Place	Shape
Build	Disinfect	Indicate	Plan	Sit
Calculate	Dismantle	Infer	Plot	Site
Calibrate	Dismiss	Inspect	Position	Sketch
Call	Dispense	Install	Position	Solve
Cast	Distinguish	Instil	Post	Sort
Categorise	Divide	Instruct	Practise	Specify
Change	Draw	Insure	Predict	Split
Check	Dress	Interpret	Prepare	Stand
Choose	elevate	Involve	Press	Start
Cite	Employ	Isolate	Print	Sterilize
Classify	Ensure	Issue	Propose	Store
Clean	Enumerate	Itemize	Punctuate	Straighten
Cleanse	Equate	Judge	Question	Supervise
Climb	Establish	Label	Quote	Switch
Collect	Estimate	Level	Raise	Synthesize
Combine	Evacuate	Light	Rank	Take
Compare	Examine	Lighten	Rate	Talk
Compensate	Execute	List	Realise	Tell
Compile	Explain	Listen	Rebuild	Trace
Complete	Expose	Load	Recall	Transcribe
Compose	Express	Loosen	Receive	Transfer
Compute	File	Maintain	Recondition	Translate
Conclude	finalise	Make	Record	Transport

 Activity

You have gone through the write up on Systematic Approach to Training. You are aware of the stages to be followed in Systematic Approach to Training for improving performance through training intervention.

Further, the training scenario in the country, as in the rest of the world, is fast switching over to more and more learner centered methods from the trainer centered ones. Based on the experience that you have in the field of training please prepare a write up on current training practices in our country, in comparison with Systematic Approach to Training and highlight the Systematic Approach to Training – Areas of Concern.

The SAT AND BEYOND…

Objectives: After reading this article you will be able to –

        ❖ Evaluate SAT in the context of continued learning and developmental training;

        ❖ Describe the Transitional Model of Harry Taylor

The Systematic Training Cycle

The systematic training process, which represents a major contribution to employee development that originated in 1960s is firmly rooted in the idea that training and development is a sub system of the organization, with its own inputs from, and output to, the organization. Its advocates refer to its potential to link staff development with organizational goals and, further, that this link encourages an adequate flow of funds for training to take place. To a large extent, Boydell (1983) can be credited with elucidating and communicating this major contribution to training in organizations. That training should be related to the end results that the organization seeks is at the heart of the systematic approach, and this is the fundamental test of whether a training need exists. All the training modules viz., Direct Trainer Skills (DTS), Design of Training (DoT), Management of Training (MoT) etc. of Trainers Development Programme incorporated this approach, and considered it fundamental in guiding professional practice.

While professionalism in training, exemplified by the systemic approach, has been important now for a number of decades, specific weaknesses of the approach have been identified through its outcomes. For instance, many organizations have recognized a risk that training activities can become divorced from the real needs of employee development. One aspect of this is recurring criticism of the inability of trainees to directly apply learning from off-the-job training courses to their jobs. This criticism has been relatively valid in relation to management and developmental training in the public services.

Despite professional trainers being experts in learning theory, the locus of responsibility for learning in organizations can lose ground in an environment of rapid and complex change. Latent assumptions about how skill needs are identified, training events designed and implemented, and outcomes evaluated, have failed to keep pace with real organizational needs. The result is a lack of clear focus on learning as a major theme in improving organizational performance. Somehow the tripartite relationship of managers/trainers/staff may fail to clearly attach the responsibility of learning to the learner. For instance, in such training the trainer is so clearly in control of course objectives, content, behaviour and assessment, that trainees become passive and dependent on the trainer – thus leaving behind, in the training event, the learning capacities they display in the workplace. These problems persist in spite of thirty years of promoting the systematic training process for the benefit of organizations.

Harry Taylor of IDPM, in his paper titled “The Systematic Training Model: corn circles in search of a spaceship? (1991)” has examined the extent to which training practice often diverges from the precepts of the model, attempted to explain this divergence in terms of a critique of the model, from rehabilitative view, and then from a more radical standpoint, and finally attempted tentatively to suggest the criteria against which any updated models might be measured, and also outlined a ‘transitional’ model.

Drawing first of all on the organization theory perspectives of Gareth Morgan, one can view the evolution of the systematic model of training since the early 1960s to its present state as a steady progression from a conception of organization and the learning process based on a ‘mechanistic’ metaphor towards a conception of these phenomena based on an ‘organismic’ metaphor (Morgan, 1986). The early version of the systematic model show clearly the machine-like view of training as being composed of ‘elements’ or ‘components’ which only need to be analysed or broken down in order to understand and manipulate them. However, because of the weaknesses of this approach in practice and the availability of new conceptions, the systematic model has been adopted to reflect ‘organismic’ thinking. This basically biological approach modifies the more traditional mechanistic view in at least three ways:

    ▪ Training is no longer seen as something that is ‘done to’ people. Individuals have to be provided with appropriate conditions in which to ‘grow’. This involves creating the appropriate conditions for learning and recognising individual differences in speed and style of learning, and also the need to integrate training policies and activities with other aspects of personnel policy relating to rewards, motivation and appraisal;

    ▪ Unlike the machine metaphor, the organismic metaphor recognises the inter relatedness of the various sub-systems within an organisation. In training terms this encourages a broader view in terms of both analysis of needs, where consequences of changes in one area need to be thoroughly traced through to all other areas, and also in terms of designing training where learning is not specialised within a training department, but is diffused and supported from a range of organisational locations to create a ‘learning community’ as a pre-requisite to organisational growth and development;

    ▪ There is an emphasis on adaptation to environmental conditions. Successful organisms adapt quickly to changes in their environment whereas unsuccessful ones do not. Hence approaches to training have to be flexible and adaptable rather than pre-programmed and highly specified. Also training is not seen merely as a response to external change, but a means of initiating it, i.e. the beloved notion of training as an ‘agent of change’.

Therefore we see that current concepts of the systematic model, while still containing important elements of the original emphasis on the rational use of resources to achieve organizational objectives, is now somewhat more subtle in recognizing the reality of how learning occurs and the need to adopt a flexible response to differing circumstances as outlined above. The shift in the last 20 years from‘training’ to learning paradigm and from ‘learning’ to a ‘learning to learn’ paradigm is indicative of this newer approach.

Transitional Model of Harry Taylor- An Alternative Model

Contingency theory would lead us to expect that a search for a universal replacement model may well be futile. Different concepts may be required for different situations and time periods. The original systematic training model may have applicability in situations characterised by:

• A stable environment and a clear set of goals
• A high degree of employee identification with the goals of the organisation
• The major requirement from employees being compliance with routine rather than commitment to flexibility
• Outcomes, which can, and need, to be measured.

If the futurologists and management gurus have it right, these situations will be less and less evident in organisations in the future, although one detects a note of wishful thinking in much of this literature; for example, new technology may well create as many low discretion, low satisfaction and de-skilled jobs, as it produces high discretion satisfying jobs. It may therefore be premature to completely discard systematic training.

However, for other kinds of situation new conceptualisations are necessary. By way of conclusion, Taylor suggested some of the criteria that new model must satisfy and also outlined a tentative transitional model which more fully addresses the ‘contingent variables’ faced by many organisations currently.

Dealing with the criteria that new models must satisfy, there are three major ones:

• The model must account for the plurality of interests of the various stakeholders in the organisations and their interaction with each other;
• The model should recognize the different types of learning required within organisations at different levels and at different times, varying at one end of the spectrum from highly specific and programmed skill learning to the other end of the spectrum – the highly unstructured, attitudinal, ‘learning to learn’ kind of learning;
• The model should recognise learning as a total organisational process, not merely a functional specialism.

There may well be other criteria that need to be applied but these will probably provide a sufficiently rigorous initial test of any new model.

The transitional model Taylor suggested consists of a double-loop of corporate strategy and learning as depicted in figure below.

Transitional Model of Harry Taylor-

The inner loop is the familiar one associated with the systematic training model, and is retained to cater for situations where the kind of strategy and training associated with it are seen to be necessary. However, the important point is that this is ‘nested’ within an outer loop of ‘crafted strategy’ and learning. This represents a real alternative to the rational, ‘systematic approach’ of the inner loop and can be seen as complementary to it in the same way as the right side of the brain complements the left side. The notion of strategy as a craft implies first getting an intuitive feel through experience for phenomena rather than exactly measuring and manipulating them, and second, as a result a highly individually distinctive and loosely structured approach rather than ‘one best way’ following predetermined steps. 

Since experimentation and intuition are valued, then backtracking is common, and argument and debate are encouraged. This is particularly important in the first three stages of the outer loop, which look at the more nebulous concepts of turning a desired scenario completely unrelated to current concerns (VISION) into a statement of why the organisation exists (MISSION), to communicating and negotiating this to employees and clients in the form of organisational ideals (VALUES).   All this precedes any specific attention to detailed objective setting – if that is to occur at all. Dependent on the nature of the values and the task requirement, then all, some, or none of this may be converted into the classic strategic management paradigm. 

However, this is not the only option at this stage. It may be necessary to stay on the outer loop, and instead of formulating specific objectives, ‘play around’ with ideas on the basis of unstructured experimentation and intuition. Realisation is not merely checking whether specific objectives have been met (if indeed they have been set in the first place) but is a much more fundamental process of review, reinforcement and/or replacement of value, rewards (psychic and material) and re-alignment of vision.Each approach to strategy implies a different approach to learning, as shown below:

This ‘transitional’ model is a first attempt to provide some kind of framework for different kinds of learning situation that exist within organisations, but it retained the elements of the original systematic training model. Moreover, the model is essentially a synthesis of new thinking on corporate strategy and the development of more recent concepts of learning, such as learning styles, ‘learning to learn’ and action learning.

References

1. Handout on The Systematic Approach to Training – Indian Task Force Training, IDPM, University of Manchester.

2. Harry Taylor, IDPM – The systematic training model : corn circles in search of a spaceship?

LEARNING COMMUNITY & LEARNING ORGANIZATION

Objectives:

After reading this article you will be able to –

❖ Explain the concepts of Learning Community, Communities of Practices, learning organization, action learning and learning to learn.

Learning Community

The term learning community is used variously within the literature, often without explicit definition. It focuses on the human element of communities, and the profits that accrue from building on the synergies of individuals in common locations or with common interests as they work towards sharing understandings, skills and knowledge for shared purposes.

Learning communities are developed where groups of people, linked geographically or by shared interest, collaborate, and work in partnership to address their members’ learning needs. Learning communities facilitated through adult and community education are a powerful tool for social cohesion, community capacity building and social, cultural and economic development.

Learning communities are operationalised through collaboration, cooperation, and / or partnership. The shared goals are achieved through working together and potentially building or creating new knowledge.

Individual learning is the foundation for the learning that occurs within a learning community and the core business of learning communities is the sharing of knowledge through collaboration.

Learning community is defined as a common place where people learn through group activity to define problems affecting them to decide upon a solution, and to act to achieve the solution. As they progress, they gain new knowledge and skills.

Learning through interactions with others in a learning community can build social capital. Social capital, in turn, facilitates learning by fostering trust, shared values, personal development, a sense of identity and access to the knowledge of others through networks that form a sound basis for sharing knowledge and skills; that is for collaborating and learning together.

Learning communities can provide benefits to individual members and the community as a whole by developing the capacity or enhancing the potential of members. The benefits of learning communities are enhanced if there is a professional learning culture that values professional development and a climate of openness that promotes sharing of knowledge, dialogue, inquiry and risk-taking, and gives constructive feedback to people at all level. The establishment of trust is also essential to the success of working collaboratively. A reciprocation of trust needs to be built among peers or between peers and leaders. Without a “culture of trust”, team members will find it difficult to experiment or attempt to put new ideas into place.

The concept of learning communities draws on a wide body of theory related to learning and sociology. Learning communities have much to recommend them in an increasingly complex world where we cannot expect any one person to have sufficient knowledge and skills to confront the complexities of institutions, our society and the tasks he/she faces. They are consistent with a constructive approach to learning that recognises the key importance of interactions with others, and the role of social interactions in building up values and identity. Learning communities can minimise risks in the increasingly complex world of the twenty-first century.

Communities of Practices

According to Etienne Wenger, communities of practice are groups of people who share a passion for something they do and who interact regularly to learn how to do it better. Communities of practice define themselves along three dimensions: what they are about, how they function, and what capabilities they produce. It summarizes their principal attributes. Each community of practice has a unique domain, community, and practice (and the support it requires). Communities of practice share the following common characteristics:

• They are peer-to-peer collaborative networks
• They are driven by the willing participation of their members
• They are focused on learning and building capacity
• They are engaged in sharing knowledge, developing expertise, and solving problems.
• They have a desire to share work-related knowledge.
• They have a passion for learning.

In organization,Community of Practice (CoP) often form to fill the gap between canonical practice (officially recognized organizational practices, often published in the form of manuals and procedures) and desired performance. Following the canonical practices alone usually does not work, since, in practice, work is much more complex than what is written by the organization. Traditionally, people are held accountable to the road map, not the actual road conditions such as the unpredictable situations that inevitably arise. In learning organisation people construct to fill the gap between the orgnaization’s canonical practices and successful work practices. This includes narration, collaboration, and social construction.

Traditional classroom lectures are rarely, if ever, useful, according to the CoP view. Real learning only occurs when practice transpires. However, there may be some cases where classroom teaching is appropriate. Involving workers and mangers directly in the training design process, while utilizing more on-the-job practice and less classroom time, will help to ensure transfer of learning.

Learning Organisation

Learning Organisation is an organization that facilitates the learning of all its members and consciously transforms itself and its context. Peter Senge defines learning organizations as “Organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to learn together.”

A learning organization values the role that learning can play in developing organizational effectiveness. It demonstrates this by having an inspiring vision for learning and a learning strategy that will support the organization in achieving its vision.

The leadership of a learning organization is committed to the importance of learning and clearly communicates that learning is critical to organizational success. The leadership recognizes the importance of providing the motive, means, and opportunity for learning: (i) the motive being the “why?” – the purpose and reason for learning; (ii) the means being the “how and what?” – the models, methods and competencies required; and (iii) the opportunity being the “where and when?” – the spaces for learning. Leaders take an exemplary role in creating and sustaining a supportive learning culture.

Peter Senge (1992) described the core of a learning organization’s work as based upon five learning disciplines, which represented lifelong programs of both personal and organizational learning and practice. These include:

Personal Mastery – Personal mastery is what Peter Senge describes as one of the core disciplines needed to build a learning organization. Personal mastery applies to individual learning.

Mental Models – A mental model is one’s way of looking at the world. It involves each individual reflecting upon, continually clarifying, and improving his or her internal pictures of the world, and seeing how they shape personal actions and decisions.

Shared Vision – Shared vision means individuals building a sense of commitment within particular workgroups, developing shared images of common and desirable futures, and the principles and guiding practices to support the journey to such futures.

Team Learning – Team learning involves relevant thinking skills that enable groups of people to develop intelligence and an ability that is greater than the sum of individual members talents.

System Thinking – System thinking involves a way of thinking about, and a language for describing and understanding forces and interrelationships that shape the behavior of systems.

The starting point of knowledge management concept is in the fact that power does not come from knowledge, but from the exchange of knowledge. It starts from the synergic effect. By exchanging knowledge, combining individual knowledge, we get much more qualitative knowledge than the individual knowledge. Obtaining and sharing knowledge is the core of the learning organization.

The reasons to become a learning organization are the following:

• people are developing (greater motivation, flexibility of employees, people are more creative, improved social interaction),
• better working teams and groups (knowledge & experience sharing, mutual dependence),
• benefiting organizations (greater work productivity, more qualitative products/ services/ procedures, competitive advantage, profit)

Action learning

Action learning is the approach that links the world of learning with the world of action through a reflective process within small cooperative learning groups known as ‘action learning sets’. The ‘sets’ meet regularly to work on individual members’ real-life issues with the aim of learning with and from each other. The ‘father’ of action learning, Reginald Revans, has said that there can be no learning without action and no (sober and deliberate) action without learning.

Action learning is a personnel development technique for learning from current activities, and involves the use of the cycle of Experiencing, Reviewing, Concluding and Planning. The following diagram shows how the four steps of action learning works in a cycle.

The relevant characteristics of action learning are:

• Work based ( Learning through work/ Learning by doing)
• Iterative through experientially based cycles involving both practice and knowledge
• Value critical self reflection and group reflection by practitioners attempting to resolve experiences in their workplace.
• Seek to change organizational circumstances by transforming participant’s understandings of these circumstances.

Mumford(1997) notes its potential as follows:

“…… the Action Learning process is potentially extremely rich because it provides scope for consistently going around the Learning Cycle and discovering more about yourself, more about the process, more about how to transfer particular experiences to other situations.”

Work based learning takes into account a number of well researched theories, particularly theories related to adult learning and learning organisations. The model in the diagram below connects these theories with the individual’s organisational work and with organisational improvement.

Action learning provides opportunity for:

• Working on a ‘real life’ problem
• Being encouraged to question what is happening
• Trying out suggested solutions (doing things differently)
• Stepping back and reflecting on what is happening and why
• Sharing the experience with those who are also learning by doing.

Learning to learn

Learning to learn is the development of metacognitive skills i.e., learners' automatic awareness of their own knowledge and their ability to understand, control, and manipulate their own cognitive processes and techniques. According to Hargreaves: “learning to learn is not a single entity or skill, but a family of learning practices that enhance one’s capacity to learn.”

One of the basic skills for success in the knowledge society is the ability to learn. With increasingly rapid changes in the work place, in part due to changing technology and as a result of changing societal needs in the context of globalization, employees must learn to learn in order that they can maintain their full and continued participation in employment. In this context learning to learn is an ideal tool for lifelong learning and thus training needs to provide the learning environment for the development of this competence for all employees, throughout the whole service span and through different learning environments.

Self-initiated, self regulated, intentional and unintentional learning at all stages of life has thus become the key to personal and professional advancement. Within this context, much attention is now focused on the critical role of metacognitive competence, the capacity to understand and control one’s own thinking and learning processes. This competence makes people aware of how and why they acquire process and memorise different types of knowledge. In this way, they are in a position to choose the learning method and environment that suits them best and to continue to adapt them as necessary”.

References

1. Mumford, A. (ed.) (1997), Action Learning at Work, Gower Publishing, Aldershot, U.K
2. John-Steiner, V. (2000) Creative Collaboration. New York: Oxford University Press

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Objectives: After reading this article, you will be able to:

• Describe ‘The Kolb Model of Experiential Learning’ as a cycle, emphasizing four major, different and sequential learning abilities;
• Relate learning abilities to learning activities at different stages;
• Explain trainer-role at each stage of the learning cycle and
• State learner resistance in progressing through the learning cycle

THE PREMISE

Experiential Learning is exactly what the name implies – learning from experience – learner’s own experience. Naturally, therefore, the training that provides for experiential learning has to be based on learner–centred approach.

• What should any training – be it Management Development or Trainer Training – if it were to generate learning through learner’s own experience – have as its starting point?
• The responsibility for learning vests in the learner. But then that’s a very broad and omnibus statement. What do we mean by this responsibility?
• Is it a singular responsibility – very clearly stated? Or, does it have multiple dimensions?
• When we say “Learner Centred Approach” – what exactly is our perception?
• Is it just allowing the learner to participate in some activity and feel happy?
• Or, is it respecting the principles of adult learning or even something more?

To appreciate the subject better, we need have clear answers to these questions. Yet, the moot point is nobody is going to provide us with the answers. We, the learners, would need to find it out for ourselves. And we will, as we go along.

THE KOLB MODEL OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

In the area of management development, the advantage of the Kolb model is in its theoretical consistency inasmuch as it takes into account the potential of learning that takes place over and above the content based learning. The Kolb model is particularly suitable for trainer training, for the simple reason that it emphasizes on the work experience to be the criterion for strengthening learner’s ability for continued learning towards improving the performance. In contrast, the emphasis in “Systematic Approach to Training”, which is generally in vogue, is on how best to ‘provide’ or ‘deliver’ training. And that leads to implanting in the participants what is professionally valued. Isn’t that trainer-centred?

Learning Abilities

The Kolb model recognizes four learning abilities for learning from experience. These learning abilities include two sets (Fig.1-A and Fig.1-B) of polar opposites.

Putting these two sets together, these abilities to learn from experience would form an intersection (Fig.1-C). Besides polar opposites, the intersection also suggests the possibility of a continuum among the adjacent learning abilities.

(Fig.1-C)

In the first set (Fig.1-A), one ability is to learn from direct experience of something. The learner has a go at that something first and then learns. But the other ability for learning, which is placed opposite, is the ability to learn from thinking about the experience. Our own and others’ generalisation about experience helps us learn. In the second set (Fig.1-B), one ability for learning from experience is the ability to implement new experience. And the other represents the ability of analysis of experience. 

In both the cases one ability requires action and involves us emotionally whereas the other requires a distance from action and engages us intellectually. Can we learn from these polar opposites simultaneously? Is it not likely that we prefer to learn from one ability over its opposite. This suggests that normally we are inclined towards our “preferred ways of learning”. Honey and Mumford have extended this further to put in place the “Learning Styles Questionnaire”. A discussion on learning styles will be taken up a little later in the section on ‘Learning Activities’. Let us move with the Kolb Model.

Cyclical Linkage

The four learning abilities in the Kolb model (Fig.1-C) can be linked into a four-stage cycle of learning from experience:

(Fig.2)

The cyclical linkage re-emphasises the continuum among the adjacent learning abilities. We continue to learn from experience by -

         applying in new circumstance at stage 4;

        the knowledge conceptualised at stage 3 from;

        analysis done in stage 2 of;

        problematic experience encountered at stage 1

The progress for a learner in continuing to learn from experience is dependent upon the effective learning at each previous and successive stage of the cycle. Will the transition from one stage to the other be smooth or will there be any resistance on the part of the learner? The implication, therefore, is that learning from experience would require strengthening all four learning abilities. And that calls for a competence level in the trainer to structure opportunities for learners to acquire the ability to learn as a process simultaneously with learning the content.

Learning Activities

What learning activities, the trainer should plan to develop these learning abilities? What is the corresponding learning style for each of the four learning abilities? Learning objectives need to be achieved through choice of learning activities (Fig.3) suitable to the participants’ learning styles (Fig.3) and the topics at hand. This is not to suggest that as learners we can afford to remain confined to our dominant learning style. We may have our preferred learning style, yet if the work situation demands a range of learning styles and we wish to increase our potential, we need to strengthen our capability to adapt to different learning styles.

(Fig.3)

Stage 1 – Direct Experience: To develop the ability to learn from direct experience, the learner must get an opportunity to have a go at what is under study. The key to learning at this stage is ‘involvement’. The learning activity that provides direct involvement of the learner in experiencing what is being studied, should be structured at this stage. This is not same as offering of trainer’s experience. Role Play (playing part), Story Telling (listening), Hands-on, Group Problem Solving, Structured Exercise, Field Visit, Assignment, Project, OJT, Practical Tasks all offer opportunities to the learner for real or simulated experience.

Stage 2 – Reflecting on Experience: This is the stage for developing data. Therefore the learning activity at this stage should be such that it creates opportunity for the learners to develop data from reflecting on their direct experience. Most of the training and development activities relate to helping the adults to learn to use the data available to them. Yet do the learners find it simple to generate data from experience and translate that into useful information? Developing skills to seek or generate data or creating conditions for receiving data are the areas where learners might require help. 

The trainer should be prepared to help the participants think critically about the experience and to help them verbalize their feelings and perceptions as well as draw attention to any recurrent themes or patterns which appear in the participants’ reactions. How does she help? Which activities, techniques or methods would be handy? Video Replays, Observer’s Feedback, Debriefing, Case Study (analysis), Group Discussion, Group observation, Counselling are all activities for developing data.

Stage 3 – Generalisation about Experience: The learning activity for direct experience (Stage 1) requires involvement of the learner, for reflection on experience (Stage 2) it calls for data development. What should be the learning activity at stage 3 – generalisation about experience? In fact, the shift from detailed analysis at stage 2 to generalisation about experience at stage 3 is often imperceptible. The key word here is ‘making connections’. During this stage, participants are helped to “take a step back” from the immediate experience and discussion, and to think critically in order to draw conclusions that might generally or theoretically apply to “real life”. 

The more they themselves do this generalisation or conceptualisation (and not the trainer), the more they would assimilate the meaning of their or others’ past experience to guide themselves in future experience. The trainer can provide conceptual input to aid this process of assimilation and generalisation. Lecture, Seminar, Syndicate (presentation), Group Discussion (leading, drawing conclusions or summarising), Guided Reading, Dissertation, are the methods, activities. techniques the trainer might consider using at this stage.

Stage 4 – Testing out new Experience: Drawing upon insights and conclusions reached during the previous stage (and other stages), the learner at this stage of the Kolb cycle should now be ready to apply the new learning on to the work situation. This is the application stage of the cycle. The trainer needs to provide opportunity for learners to translate knowledge into action. Therefore, the learning activity to be structured at this stage has to be “practice”. Which methods, techniques or interventions provide opportunity for such practice? Coaching (Practice part), Micro-sessions, Simulation, Project, Assignment, and Action Plans, which have in-built element of practice are suggested for use at this stage.

Learning Styles

The ways in which an individual characteristically acquires, retains, and retrieves information are collectively termed the individual’s learning style.

Stage 1 – Activists: Those who prefer to learn from direct experience, according to the “Learning Styles Questionnaire” of Honey and Mumford, possess a specific learning style and they are known as “Activists”. Activists involve themselves fully and without any bias in new experiences. They tend to act first and consider the consequences afterwards.

They enjoy the here and now and are happy to be dominated by immediate experiences. They are open-minded, not skeptical, and this tends to make them enthusiastic about anything new. Their philosophy is: “I’ll try anything once”. They tend to act first and consider the consequences afterwards. Their days are filled with activity. They tackle problems by brainstorming. As soon as the excitement from one activity has died down they are busy looking for the next. They tend to thrive on the challenge of new experiences but are bored with implementation and longer-term consolidation. They are gregarious people constantly involving themselves with others but in doing so; they seek to centre all activities around themselves.

Stage 2 – Reflectors: Reflectors like to stand back to ponder experiences and observe them from many different perspectives. They collect data, both first hand and from others, and prefer to think about it thoroughly before coming to any conclusion. The thorough collection and analysis of data about experiences and events is what counts so they tend to postpone reaching definitive conclusions for as long as possible. Their philosophy is to be cautious. They are thoughtful people who like to consider all possible angles and implications before making a move. They prefer to take a back seat in meetings and discussions. They enjoy observing other people in action. They listen to others and get the drift of the discussion before making their own points. They tend to adopt a low profile and have a slightly distant, tolerant unruffled air about them. When they act it is part of a wide picture which includes the past as well as the present and others’ observations as well as their own.

Stage 3 – Theorists: Theorists adapt and integrate observations into complex but logically sound theories. They think problems through in a vertical, step-by-step logical way. They assimilate disparate facts into coherent theories. They tend to be perfectionists who won’t rest easy until things are tidy and fit into a rational scheme. They like to analyse and synthesise. They are keen on basic assumptions, principles, theories, models and systems thinking. Their philosophy prizes rationality and logic. “If it’s logical it’s good”. Questions they frequently ask as are: “Does it make sense?” “How does this fit with that?” “What are the basic assumptions?” They tend to be detached,  analytical and dedicated to rational objectivity rather than anything subjective or ambiguous. Their approach to problems is consistently logical. This is their ‘mental set’ and they rigidly reject anything that doesn’t fit with it. They prefer to maximize certainty and feel uncomfortable with subjective judgments, lateral thinking and anything flippant.

Stage 4 – Pragmatists: The learning style at this stage refers to trying out ideas to verify if they work. Those who possess such learning style are known as “Pragmatists”. They are the kind of people who return from training courses brimming with new ideas that they want to try out in practice. They tend to be impatient with ruminating and open-ended discussions. They are essentially practical, down to earth people who like making practical decisions and solving problems.

Pragmatists are keen on trying out ideas, theories and techniques to see if they work in practice. They positively search out new ideas and take the first opportunity to experiment with applications. They like to get on with things and act quickly and confidently on ideas that attract them. They respond to problems and opportunities ‘as a challenge’. Their philosophy is: “There is always a better way” and “If it works it’s good”.

Trainer Roles

The trainer performs different roles at different stages of the learning cycle (Fig.4) with a view to helping the learner moving from one stage to the other.

(Fig.4)

Structurer: At stage 1 the trainer’s role is primarily to structure provision of direct experience for the learner. The role calls for anticipation and preparation before the activity begins. During the activity the role may be of ‘time-keeping’ or ‘refereeing’. It requires confidence and capacity to cope with uncertainty. The learners might undertake the activity in a way contrary to trainer’s plan or react with extended silence or refusal to participate. They may even verbally attack the trainer. Such responses may be emotionally challenging to trainers.

Focuser: The trainer may abruptly shift from her behind the scene role during the playing part of a role-play (stage 1) to a prominent role in leading review of the role-play (stage 2). At this stage her role is largely to ensure emergence of data from stage 1 in a focussed manner so as to be available for use by the learners. The trainer is required to focus the attention of learners on the data available from stage 1. What happened? How do you feel about that? What went wrong? How did you accomplish the task? What were the hindrances? – These are the kind of questions the trainer might employ. 

Interventions that clarify may be used by the trainer to help learners in eliciting, checking or retaining the meaning of the information offered by them. The trainer has to be alert to how data are managed and also to what kinds of data are made available. That calls for ‘process awareness’ on the part of the trainer. The learners may be encouraged to critically raise observations about their learning behaviour. It is part of the trainer role here to establish that examination of performance during learning is permissible. The trainer’s competence as a ‘focuser’ is indicated by how she draws attention to the learner behaviour (inability, block or failure) to bring out useful data about performance.

Guide: The trainer’s role at this stage is more akin to the role of a teacher or an educator, than at any other stage of the learning cycle. Yet her role as a guide is not very simple for two reasons:

 First, the shift on the part of the learner from detailed analysis (stage 2) to conceptualisation (stage 3) is not quite prominent.

 And second, there is always a temptation to answer all direct questions from learners fully and comprehensively or to conclude on their behalf finding them struggling miserably.

What should the trainer actually do as a guide at this stage? What are her priorities? In this role the trainer acts as a ‘resource broker’ by providing input or pointing to the available literature or publications on the subject. That the trainer will have a map of the whole content area in her mind is obvious. However, in progressing the learner through this cycle even at stage 3, what the trainer must bear in mind is that she needs to promote conceptualisation by the learners and not conceptualise on their behalf. What did you learn from this? How would you link it to your job requirement? What could be the conclusion? What is the logic? These are some of the questions that can be heard here coming from the trainer

Coach: As a coach, the trainer helps in enhancement of learner-skill to act without help so as to ensure transfer of learning. This is done by creating opportunity for practice. Based on the action plans of learners, practice sessions can be planned. The role of a coach demands flexibility in devising practice opportunities, sometimes impromptu, for learners to experiment with and adapt their performance for better results. At this implementation stage, as in all the previous stages, there is always a fear that the learner might be hesitant to take up the opportunity for learning through new experience. Hence the trainer has additionally to be prepared to contend with resistance from the learner. In the role of a coach, the trainer may intervene with advice, suggesting alternatives for consideration by the learner. “What will you do differently next time?” is the question to be heard.

Learner Resistance

Learning in any form or level is always required to contend with some resistance on the part of the learner. Such resistances may be perceptual, emotional, intellectual or cultural. And the trainer has to find ways to manage those situations. In the experiential learning cycle, the responsibility for learner readiness to maximise opportunity for learning is a shared responsibility of the learner, learner’s manager and the trainer. It is possible that our adult learner may resist the acquisition of learning from experience at any stage of the learning cycle. The specific learner resistances or blocks (Fig.5) relevant to the different stages of the Kolb model temporarily stall the progress of the learner through the particular stage of the cycle.

(Fig.5)

Block (1) – Ignoring: At stage 1 of the learning cycle, learning from direct experience demands that the learners recognise their experience of direct experience. However, the experience may generate uncomfortable emotions, which may temporarily block out their ability to learn from it. Hence they may resort to ignoring the experience as well as the opportunity structured therefor. In a group problem-solving task, the learners may perform poorly and then gloss over the results rather than using it as a basis for learning to begin.

Block (2) – Denying: While learners may acknowledge the direct experience, they may not accept its meaning thereby withholding the data development at stage 2. They tend to deny the relevance of the data coming out of the analysis of the direct experience. In role-play sessions during debriefing, the learners often say “We do not act that way in our organisation”. In fact, what is happening is that the learners are denying the opportunity to learn from reflecting on experience.

Block (3) – Avoiding: Even if the learners recognise the direct experience from which to learn (vs ignoring it) and perceive meaning and develop data for learning (vs denying its validity), their readiness to learn continually at stage 3 would be indicated by their acceptance of the implications and connecting to its usefulness on the job situation. But, they may avoid making connections. It is possible that after a discussion sessions when the trainees are asked to articulate what has been learnt, there may be an extended silence or they may say, “You tell us”. Thus they are avoiding learning from the generalization about the experience.

Block (4) – Rationalizing: Learners blocked from implementing what they learnt may explain away why the changes they intellectually accepted at stage 3 cannot be put into practice in the real job situation i.e. at stage 4. “Oh! With the kind of organisational culture we have, it is impossible to make such changes” is often heard when learners are asked to prepare action plan. They rationalize their unwillingness to implement new learning.

SUMMARY OF LEARNING POINTS

1. The Kolb Model of Experiential Learning is particularly suitable for trainer training as it emphasizes on the work experience to be the criterion for strengthening learner’s ability for continued learning towards improving the performance.
2. The responsibility for setting the context of training is a joint responsibility of the trainer and the learner. The responsibility for framing the content lies with the learner and learner alone. And the trainer should shoulder the total responsibility for the process.
3. The Kolb model recognizes four learning abilities for learning from experience – Direct Experience, Reflecting on Experience, Generalisation about Experience and Testing out new Experience. Learning from experience requires strengthening all four learning abilities.
4. Honey and Mumford have extended the Kolb Cycle to propound four learning styles namely: Activists, Reflectors, Theorists and Pragmatists
5. The progress for a learner in continuing to learn from experience is dependent upon the effective learning at each previous and successive stage of the cycle.
6. The learning activities at the different stages of the learning cycle are: Involvement, Developing Data, Making Connections and Practice.
7. The trainer performs different roles at different stages of the learning cycle with a view to helping the learner move from one stage to the other. The roles are: Structurer, Focuser, Guide and Coach.
8. In the experiential learning cycle, the responsibility for learner readiness to maximise opportunity for learning is a shared responsibility of the learner, learner’s manager and the trainer.
9. It is possible that the adult learner may resist by ignoring, denying, avoiding and rationalizing, the acquisition of learning from experience at a particular stage of the learning cycle.
10. To progress the learner through the learning cycle the trainer should be: (i) confident to begin, (ii) process aware, (iii) guiding conceptualisation (and not doing it) and (iv) managing practice of new experience by the learner for transfer of learning

***************

References:

1. Learning Theory and Training Process – Handout for Indian Task Force Training, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.
2. Design of Training, Trainer Training – The Manchester Model – By Dr Pete Mann, University of Manchester, UK
3. Learning Style Questionnaire of Honey and Mumford – Styles: General Descriptions – Handout for Indian Task Force Training, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.

FIELD VISIT

Objectives: After reading this article, you will be able to:

1. Describe the purpose and use of field visit as a training method,
2. Identify steps for planning and conducting a field visit, and
3. State advantages and disadvantages of choosing field visit as a training method.

Introduction

Field Visit, as a training method, provides a dynamic environment near to or within the scenes of real action for learners to be a part of. It is a training method in which opportunities are provided to the learners to visit organisations, shop-floors, fields, community sites or villages, with a view to be a part of, observe, and collect information to reflect, analyse and learn. The learners use the experience undergone by them for learning during and after the visit, which stimulate thinking and triggers the process of continued learning.

Where can Field Visit be used

Field Visits can be used

• To establish familiarity with work culture, work practices, work conditions, constraints etc in organisations.
• To assure the practicality of new ideas. This in turn can generate thoughts on the aspects to be considered for implementation of these ideas. These ideas could be useful to both the trainees and the host organisations.
• To secure first hand information from experienced people about the job, organisation etc.
• To Develop skills for managing uncertainties.
• To Challenge pre-conceived views/perceptions.
• By host organisation for problem solving.
• To sensitise learners to the ground realities as existing especially, when using Field Visit for training in the areas of health, education, rural development etc.
• In rural areas Field Visits could be used to generate a sense of caring for the poor, ownership by them to solutions possible, develop their decision- making skills, co-operative spirit etc. The potential is enormous.

Criteria for selection of Field Visit

1. Whether learning through Field Visit is likely to be the most effective method in the area in which training is being imparted? Even if certain gaps exist, can it be filled by using other methods before, after, alongside Field Visit? Especially to capture the potential of the method to provide real experience to the learners.
2. What are the other methods being used in the training and what are the likely implications of using a Field Visit in combination/concurrently with these other methods in a training course?
3. When to use the Field Visit in a training course and the implications of the decision?
4. Capabilities of the trainer(s) to use the method effectively and if other methods are to be combined, then trainer(s)' skills in using those methods in combination.
5. General considerations like availability/convenience of host organisation, safety, climatic conditions etc.

Sequencing Field Visit in a training course

Being a method with potential to provide intense experience to trainees, it's placing within a training course need special attention. More so, as it not only has implications on the effectiveness of the Field Visit but can also influence other components of the course. Other methods that would be used before and after the Field Visit as well as those that would be used along with the Field Visit also need to be viewed in this light. The diagram below represents possible alternatives of using the Field Visit in a training course.

Alternatives for scheduling the Field Visit*

I

II

III

IV

* Black filled boxes indicate use of Field Visit.

Unfilled boxes indicate use of other training methods.

A few questions may be worth considering when using the Field Visits in various slots in a training course as depicted above

I. Field Visit is slotted towards the end of the course. Few questions for consideration in this situation could be:-

• Have opportunities been provided for collection, analysis of data, finalisation of the report etc during the Field Visit? This would be necessary for achievement of the objectives set.
• Are any reports or projects etc required to be submitted by the trainees and if so are they individual work or group work?. Further, are the reports etc required to be presented in plenary?
• Will it be necessary to follow up the Field Visit with some theoretical classes?

II. If the answer to the above is in the affirmative, the trip could be scheduled towards the middle of the training course as in the II alternative. Here the questions to be considered would be:-

• How is the intense experience of the Field Visit proposed to be sustained during the rest of the course?
• Can it be ensured by including highly participative methods during the later stages of the course?

III. Another (third) alternative way of scheduling the Field Visit is to do it intermittently during the training course. Here the considerations could be:-

• Whether or not there would be too much and too frequent change in the training environment?

IV. The entire course is in the form of a Field Visit with other training methods included along with the Field Visit. Here the consideration would be:-

• The uncertainty of the methods that need be used along side the Field Visit to draw out the learning points. This is because the outcomes of the Field Visit as it progresses itself would be quite unpredictable. Suitable training methods then will need to be used instantaneously to tap the potential for learning of these opportunities.

How to use Field Visits

Steps for implementation of Field Visit will depend upon the objective for which Field Visit is being used, its timing in the training design, location, size of the group, whether the trainer is accompanying the group etc. But irrespective of the specification of the Field Visit, there are certain activities that need to be taken care of during various stages of the Field Visit and is applicable in general. They are:

Prior to the Field Visit

• Have a long term Institutional and individual networking to ensure co-operation from the host organisation/hosts.
• Use class room sessions for planning and preparation by the trainees for the activities to be undertaken during the Field Visit by them. Ensure preparation of questionnaires, checklists etc
• Prepare the trainees for their field role by providing opportunities for filling the existing gaps in knowledge and skills relating to the Field Visit. Trainees would be required to visualise and thereafter ensuring participation by the persons in the host organisation. etc. The shifts required would be to:-

                ➢ Do more listening than telling

                ➢ Creating learning situations for themselves rather than dictating terms and conditions

                ➢ Facilitating rather than directing or controlling the data collecting activities etc

• Address the issues relating to the trainees working in groups, effectiveness of different groupings vis-a vis the practicality, learning possibilities etc.
• Obtain reports feedback from organisers and trainees of the previous Field Visits if any to the same place. This will help in understanding the behaviour of the villagers or select communities and help overcome the blocks in the interest of learning. A discussion or interactive session with past trainers /trainees etc could also be arranged.

During the Field Visit

• Organise periodic reviews
• Encourage notes on data and the process both, with a view to improve it.
• encourage flexibility with the check list prepared to suit the ground realities.
• Be very observant if accompanying the group, if not monitor the activities very closely.

After the Field Visit

• Ensure processing of information and report writing where necessary.
• Draw out learning points
• Allow trainees to share the experience during the Field Visit to help them come out
• Thank all the persons and organisation involved with the trip.

Advantages of Field Visit

• Ground realities of the learning environment increase trust in the learning tremendously. As Learning is in near job related situations more effective transfer of learning is also ensured as compared to other methods.
• This method can contribute equally towards learning by trainees and the host organisation thus benefiting both.
• Scope for unintended learning is very high and can be tapped for further learning
• Trainee participation and involvement is of very high degree. Helps in Group Building.

Disadvantages of Field Visit

• Very High demand on trainer on planning and preparation.
• Logistics and arrangements if not done properly can hamper achievement of desired objectives.
• There is a lot of dependence on external factors including host Organisations etc. Uncertainty is very high. Physical conditions may cause inconvenience (rain, heat, health of participants). Very High trainer skills are required to convert these uncertain situations into the rare learning opportunities that they are.
• Expensive ( time and cost) as compared to other methods.

Designing a Learning Intervention using a Field Visit

Selection of Field Visit as a Method

While choosing field visit as a training method certain precautions need to be taken to ensure that they become effective and fit into the overall objectives of a course.

• Relevance of field visit (can it be done by other means) to the course
• Location of the place (should not take 30-45 minutes of travel) otherwise, participants are subject to fatigue.
• Should be of practical value to the participants/related to their work place/job/role.
• Size of the group should be upto a maximum of 20-25. Otherwise, scope for each member to learn is less. Even the group should be divided into ‘teams’ of 4-5 for effective involvement.
• Should have enough number of facilitators.
• Identify/shortlist locations (at least 2) which are eligible for ‘field visits’.
• Contact the concerned and do a ‘Reconnaissance’ to inform them what you want your participants to be told and also be convinced of the competency of the concerned and the “nature” of the example being shown.

Organising a field visit

• briefing participants (where, why, what is to be learnt)
• logistics(transport, food, water and other items)
• maintaining time (break activities and allot time)
• expected behaviour of participants during the field visit
• materials to be carried (charts, pens, or other material)
• who all to meet
• involve participants as Group leaders
• allot tasks to members in each group:-

                    - Observing

                    - Facilitating

                    - Documenting

                    - Time keeping

Generally, during field visit, the group should be on its own i.e. carry own food and other items and do not depend on local functionaries to arrange. This will not only save time on these items but gives good impression of not being a burden on others. Similarly, the people/groups you are meeting spend whole day or major part of it with you. So, you need to compensate it. Beyond thanking some kind of a ‘contribution’ to the village/group fund’ would be a good idea.

Objective

At the end of the field visit, the trainees would be able to:-

            • Describe processes involved in a certain activity

            • Demonstrate skills required for carrying out an activity

            • Compare practicability of the event to their work place.

Performance Assessment

Field visit could yield two types of performance assessment.

        (a) While on the field visit; and

        (b) Reflection on the field visit (later in the class room).

In most cases, the field visit ends, in the ‘field’, with a ‘group assessment’ of what the group has learnt. But, a more rigorous assessment is planned by giving exercises to the teams to prepare and present the next day. These group presentations are organised as a ‘plenary’ so that other teams comment on issues and seek clarification.

This method is very useful where the need is for transferring a technical knowledge coupled with technical processes involved to carry out them.

Field visit also gives a much-needed ‘breather’ to the participants to go out and see the ‘Action’.

References:

Shiela Vaughan, IDPM, University of Manchester, Handouts on Training Techniques

TRAINING METHOD SELECTION

Objective: After going through the contents of this article, you will be able to analyze factors that influence the selection of a training method for responding to a given learning situation.

What is a Training Method?

Training simply stated is providing learning solutions to problems that an individual faces on the job while performing it. Therefore, “Training method” is the vehicle to carry and deliver that learning solution to the learner. Obviously then, the training method is an unalienable and core component of training. The genesis of the performance problem has a direct bearing on the capability of the performer. Normally the capability of the performer is manifested in the level of her knowledge, skill and willingness. Besides this, there is large arena having several compartments, each of which is required to be matched with appropriately focused responses on the part of the trainer. Each such response constitutes a training method or intervention.

A training method as commonly understood is a mechanism or a device that a trainer employs for delivering content of a subject or for facilitating the learning process with a view to achieving the pre-set learning objectives. To put it simply - a training method enables setting up a communication process between the trainer and the learner, both of whom have a common learning objective. It is also true that the type of intervention most suitable to meet learning needs and for delivering learning contents has to be decided upon simultaneously maintaining variety, achieving appropriate balance of active and passive methods and providing enough time for personal reflection by the learner. It must also be borne in mind that the choice would normally lie with the training method where the benefits significantly outweigh the costs.

Factors influencing Selection

Common sense tells us that the immediate questions that arise in the mind while selecting a training method are: who is the learner and what is she required to learn and why? What sort of performance problem has arisen? What is her present level of knowledge, skill and willingness? If we consciously generate such questions and analyze them, we would be able to find a ready list of reference points that we need to consider at the time of making a selection from a basket of training methods. Let us consider these one after the other:

❑ Level of Learning Requirement:

What constitutes learning requirement, assumes a considerable importance. Normally three (rather four) levels are easily identifiable. The first level learning is easy to conceptualize, as it is likely to involve basic physical skills and memorization. This can be measured in performance directly after the completion of the training. At the next level, learning involves adapting existing knowledge or skill to a new task or environment. In this, again the results can be seen immediately in the work place. For the third level (managerial and professional), learners are involved in work processes such as planning, controlling, directing etc. which require new principles or actions. 

In this situation, results may be assessed subjectively, may be sometime after the training has taken place. The most complex form of learning takes place when training is aimed at organizational change particularly involving willingness related aspects. In this last case it may take a long period of time before the benefits of training can be assessed. Obviously, therefore, the training method to be selected to cater to these different levels of learning requirements should not only have appropriate potential but would also be making varying demands such as preparing, creating learning environment etc. on the trainer.

❑ Trainer Capability:

While deciding upon which Training Method to adopt, the trainers are often faced with a variety of pressures. The client might ask that a particular method should be used. “Just give a lecture of about an hour or two on how to write a good note on a file and how to draft written communications” was how a very senior officer of one of the Ministries recently approached us. Colleagues also provide advice on which method should prove to be interesting for the group. 

The trainer might venture into experimenting with a new method – may be just to do something different or to score a point over others or to make an impression on the learners to establish her credibility. The trainer may have certain other things to attend to – so choose a method that allows spare time while the learners are engaged in some activity. Most commonly adopted method by an overwhelming majority of trainers till date, happens to be ‘Lecture’, due obviously to its facility in delivery. This explains that the facility factor also has its influence in the matter. In the process what is overlooked is the training value of the method. 

Therefore trainer capability is very important. She should not only be able to withstand these pressures but should also be capable of juxtaposing the intrinsic training value of the method and the task of achieving learning objectives.

❑ Learning Objectives:

The basic premise of a training method as discussed earlier on is achieving the learning objectives. Therefore, it is obvious that the selection of a training method should depend upon the learning objectives that are required to be achieved. There is a definite correlation between the method and the learning outcomes. The learning objectives define the areas of modification, i.e. – whether it is a knowledge area, skill area or the willingness area. Similarly different training methods, can in varying measure, cater to different areas – such as knowledge, skill and willingness.

If the learning outcome concerns development of knowledge, there are a number of training methods such as lecture, lesson, discussion leading, etc., available to choose from. In case the objective relates to the skill area, a range of methods such as coaching, case study, role-play etc., can be thought of. Should the desired learning outcome dwell on cognitive aspects, a variety of interactive or group methods with in-built feedback mechanism, e.g. Sensitivity Training (Group Dynamics), Business Games or Group Exercise may be useful. The analysis of the learning objectives would also be a pointer to whether the need is for individual development or for group learning. Like some methods stimulate learning through peer feedback within the group, there are methods such as Exercises, Project, Coaching etc., which focus on the individual development. Therefore, before the selection of a method or a combination of methods is made, it is essential that the learning objectives are pre set and analyzed.

❑ Subject Area

Different subject areas (Office Procedure, Service Rules, Financial Rules, Financial Management, Management Services, Behavioral Areas, Trainer-training etc.) have different specific features. Some might involve reproductive or repetitive tasks whereas others may involve options, interpretation, analysis and decision-making etc. Basically the consideration of the subject area should provide focus on the learning category. 

Categories of ‘Knowledge’ include: facts, procedure, concepts and principles. 

Similarly ‘Skill” categories are: thinking, acting, reacting and interacting. 

In some cases lecture using visual aids plus exercises may be helpful. Even simple guided reading or a performance aid may be gainfully used in some select areas. Projects, Business Games, Simulation Exercises, Case Studies, Field Trip etc. can be employed where the subject area demands higher level of learning requirement. In managerial subject areas, a mix of participative methods enabling the learners to find the learning solutions themselves should prove to be effective.

❑ Time

Appropriateness and availability of right amount of time is very crucial to selection of a training method at least on four counts.

(a) Time for delivery: Lecture can take less time to cover more of the content. Discussion leading would require considerably more time. As we move further on the trainer-centered – learner-centered method continuum, we need to make higher provision of time due mainly to the fact that the control over learning process shifts from trainer to the learner/ learner-group.

(b) Time for planning & preparation: Different training methods have their different minimum planning and preparation time – not counting the time over run attributable to trainer capacity.

(c) Time for preparation of training material: Different training methods require preparation of varying types of training material to assist implementation. In Role-play we need appropriate role scripts, to supplement Lecture or Lesson method, exercises and visuals are required to be developed, Case studies are to be written or procured for Case Study method, etc.etc. And preparation of each such training material demands provision of commensurate time.

(d) Time of the day: During the post lunch sessions the mind and the body do not work in tandem. Hence it should be appropriate to choose a method that includes some activity on the part of the learners. Structured simulation games, Role-plays, Activity sampling etc. can motivate learners to be involved in the learning process at such time. Similarly in the first hour when everybody is fresh, discussion leading or case study may generate ideas very quickly.

❑ Learner Capability

Earlier on we have said that normally the capability of the performer is manifest in the level of her knowledge, skill and willingness. In training parlance this is termed as “Entry Behaviour”. This would tell us about the gap that needs to be bridged through training. Ideally the learner should also be aware of this gap. That would help effective implementation of the training method and vicariously the method-selection itself. Besides the intellectual and educational level, the entry behaviour would also indicate the age and experience of the learners. The details of the cultural environment to which the learners belong should also form part of the entry behaviour analysis. Then and then alone a complete picture of learner capability would emerge. The training method may have to be different for different learner groups even while attempting to achieve the same set of learning objectives. For example the objective relates to effective decision-making and we have two sets of learners - newly recruited managers and managers with about 5 years’ experience. For new recruits a combination of training methods such as guided reading (on principles of decision-making) followed by a simulated structured group exercise may be useful. However for the experienced managers, use of Case Study method could be thought of. Aspects of cultural environment need to be respected while choosing or structuring a learning intervention. Therefore we may conclude that the knowledge of learner capability does have an influence on the choice of a training method.

❑ Learning Style

The experiential theory of learning – “Kolb Learning Cycle” propounded by David A Kolb suggests that to be effective, a person needs to develop four different but connected qualities namely - 

1. Direct Experience 
2. Reflecting on experience 
3. Generalization about experience and 
4. Implementing new experience. 

Honey and Mumford have taken it further in terms of a self-diagnostic questionnaire for individuals to test their preferred learning styles. Four learning styles categorized for the purpose are: Activist, Reflector, Theorist and Pragmatist. Training methods appropriately addressing the different learning styles of the learners help learning to become effective.

(a) For activists who learn through direct experience, the training method needs to provide ‘involvement’. It should create an opportunity for the learners to be involved in their own direct experience of what is under study. Hands-on, group problem solving, structured exercises, role-plays (playing part), field trip etc are some of the methods to pick here.

(b) Reflectors like to stand back and observe, to ponder over experience and develop data. The training methods such as post activity discussion, observers’ & feedback, counselling etc that provide opportunity for reflection on experience may be considered for reflectors.

(c) The training methods capable of creating opportunity to make connections, to draw lessons, to synthesize available data and evidence are the ones, which can help theorists to learn. Lectures, Seminar, Guided reading, Dissertations are some such methods.

(d) Pragmatists learn through implementation of new experience. So the criterion here has to be ‘practice’. Coaching (practice part), Micro-practice sessions etc. can be thought of for such learners.

❑ Learning Principles

Learning principles mainly include motivation, participation, practice, feedback, flexibility and transfer. Since all training methods are meant to generate learning, all these principles are in-built except that different training methods have provision of different learning principles in varying measure. And that underscores the need to consider the availability of these learning principles in a particular method while choosing it for providing a particular learning solution. Each principle vis-à-vis training methods is discussed below.

Motivation: Apart from providing variety and interest, the training methods that indicate a clear applicability and show benefits to be drawn from application would enhance learner motivation. Lecture has average motivation content unless it is supplemented by visuals and exercise. All participative methods as well as On-the-Job-Training (OJT) would provide good amount of motivation to the learners.

Participation: As a rule, the deeper the participation, the higher the motivation, the more the participants retain and the better they are equipped to apply. This also entails use of existing knowledge, skill and experience. However, unless the trainer is very well prepared and skillful, methods providing higher involvement may become counter productive. For example if the case study is not appropriate, or in discussion leading the trainer’s contribution is casual the learner may disassociate herself from the learning event completely.

Practice: Practical exercises, Skill practices, Projects, Mock enquiries, Micro practice sessions and OJT provide opportunity to put new learning into practice and thereby help reinforcement and consolidation of learning.

Feedback: Feedback helps individuals to identify their strong points as well as the areas needing improvement. The training methods using observers, create opportunity for peer feedback and that helps learners learn more. Case Study, Role Play, Sensitivity training (Group Dynamics), OJT etc. have tremendous scope for feedback.

Flexibility: A training method is considered to be flexible when it allows the pace of training to match with the individual’s learning capacity or the time of learning to suit her own convenience or opportunity to try again. While participative training methods are generally flexible, Programmed learning exercises, Computer Based Training (CBT) packages as also Distance Learning (DLM) packs have a very high flexibility.

Transfer: The principle of transfer entails application of what has been learnt during training to the job situation. The training methods, which help such transfer, are OJT, Projects, Case Study, Business Games, and Role Play. In case of Lecture, Discussion, Guided Reading element of transfer is considerably weak.

Recap of Learning Points

• A training method is a mechanism or a device that a trainer employs for delivering content of a subject or for facilitating the learning process with a view to achieving the pre-set learning objectives.
• The type of intervention most suitable to meet learning needs and for delivering learning contents has to be decided upon simultaneously maintaining variety, achieving appropriate balance of active and passive methods and providing enough time for personal reflection by the learner.
• The choice of method would normally lie with the training method where the benefits significantly outweigh the costs.
• The training method to be selected to cater to four different levels of learning requirements should not only have appropriate potential but would also be making varying demands on the trainer.
• The trainer should not only be able to withstand various pressures but should also be capable of juxtaposing the intrinsic training value of the method and the task of achieving learning objectives.
• Before the selection of a method or a combination of methods is made, it is essential that the learning objectives are pre set and analyzed.
• The selection of a training method should respond appropriately to different subject areas, which have different specific features.
• Appropriateness and availability of right amount of time is very crucial to selection of a training method.
• The training method may have to be different for different learner groups even while attempting to achieve the same set of learning objectives.
• Training methods appropriately addressing the different learning styles of the learners help learning to become effective.
• It is necessary to consider the availability of different learning principles in a particular method while choosing it for providing a particular learning solution.

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References:

1. Handout on “Designing and Implementing Training” – Indian Task Force Training, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.
2. Chapter on “Training Methods and Techniques” – Every Trainer’s Handbook by Shri Devendra Agochiya.
3. Part Two – Design of Trainer Training – Learning Activities, Trainer Training the Manchester Model by Dr Pete Mann with Subas K.C., IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.
4. Chapter 3, Teaching and Training Methods – An Introductory Course in Teaching and Training Methods for Management Development, International Labour Office, Geneva.

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THE CASE STUDY METHOD

Objectives: After reading this article, you will be able to:

            • Describe uses of Case study Method

            • Describe prerequisites for selecting a Case

            • State salient points for preparing to use Case Study as a training method

            • Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using a Case Study in a training situation.

The Case Study method is a learning technique in which a real life situation or series of events together with the surrounding facts, opinions and prejudices which influences decisions is presented to trainees for their analysis and consideration of possible solution of problems identified. The strength of the case method as a training technique is its ability to arouse the interest of the trainee by placing him or her in an active role rather than that of a passive participant. It allows the trainees to learn on the basis of a well documented series of incidents and circumstances centering round an individual, an issue or an organization.

The case method calls for participant’s decisions. Trainees analyze the case situation, share views with their peers, and propose problem solutions. Participants are expected develop a plan of action for case resolution.

It has become an accepted way of transmitting knowledge through involvement of the participants and by generating a high level of interest among them.

In traditional lecture method, the trainer is the master and expert. The trainee is the listener and absorber of information. By contrast, in the case study method, the trainer plays the role of facilitator and explorer. The trainee is directly engaged as a participant and joins the instructor as a fellow explorer. The case study method relies on the active participation of trainees. Trainees, individually and collectively, take responsibility for their own learning.

While conducting a training course in the areas like, problem solving, developing analytical skills, gaining confidence in decision making, changing/ modifying the attitudes or team building, case study method helps the learning process in finding the solution.

Objective of the case study method:-

The case study method has been found to be extremely useful in acquiring knowledge, developing skills, forming attitudes and influencing behaviours. For any learner, the major motivating element in the case method is the process of engaging oneself with a situation faced by other. A better identification with the situation leads to increased involvement and enhanced learning.

Case study method can be used to develop the following skills:-

1. Qualitative and quantitative analytical skills, including problem identification skills, data handling skills and critical thinking skills.
2. Decision making skills, including generating different alternatives, selecting decision criteria, evaluating alternatives, choosing the best one, and formulating congruent action and implementation plans.
3. Application skills, using various tools, techniques and theories.
4. Oral communication skills, including speaking, listening and debating skills.
5. Time management skills, dealing with individual preparation, small group discussion and class discussion.
6. Interpersonal or social skills, dealing with peers, solving conflicts and practicing the art of compromise, in small or large groups.
7. Creative skills, looking for and finding solutions geared to the unique circumstances of each case.
8. Written communication skills, involving regular and effective note-taking, case reports and case examinations.

Selecting a Case

While choosing a case, the factors to be borne in mind are: (i) Training Objective, (ii) Entry Behaviors of the trainees and (iii) Time.

Points to be considered in respect of each factor are:

1. Training Objective: 

While selecting a case, training objectives to be achieved should be the most important deciding factors. Interpersonal case studies focus on issues of leadership, conflict, power, politics etc, while non-interpersonal cases focus on issues of policy, strategy, social, marketing, organization and development etc.

2. Entry Behaviour: 

Entry Behaviour expresses the existing knowledge, skill and attitude of a trainee relating to a specific task. Selection of a case will also depend on trainee’s entry behaviour level.

3. Time: 

Another important parameter for choosing a case is to consider the time and timings, i.e. when it can be conducted and how long it will take.

What makes a good Case Study? 

Five general characteristics of a good case study are described below:

(a) the case study must be of significant value. The individual case or cases are required to be unusual and of general public interest. The underlying issues are important – either in theoretical terms or in policy or practical terms.

(b) the case study must be complete. The complete case is one in which the phenomenon being studied and its context are given explicit attention. The decision reached is based on the information explicitly provided in the case. If the intention of the case is to allow the participants to reach one or multiple solutions, the case should project enough and sufficient details.

(c) the case study must provide scope for alternatives. While writing or choosing a case study it has to be kept in view that the case in question shall not direct the participants to a pre-conceived solution. The idea behind case study is to provide clues to the participants for choosing one of the many alternatives that may be available leading to the solution of the problem.

(d) the case study must display sufficient evidence. A good case study is one that presents sufficient evidence judiciously and effectively so that the participant can reach an independent judgment based on the analysis of such evidence. This evidence is basically logical chain of events and not referring to mere “facts”, which can be camouflaged in the case study.

(e) the case study must be composed in an engaging manner. A common complaint about case studies is that they are lengthy, cumbersome to read and boring. This calls for a clear writing style that entices the participant to continue reading. Talent and experience do contribute to building an appeal into the written text. However, the clarity of writing increases with re-writing.

Guidelines for using the method:-

It is important for the trainer to identify the objective of the session, assess the level of knowledge and skill of the participants. As a trainer, you should possess a thorough knowledge of the topic on the issues to be discussed in the case.

The case method involves preparation both individual and in small groups, and also discussion with the help of a discussion leader (resource person) of a situation as described in the case. This is done with the aim of not only solving the problems but also of learning how to solve problems by gaining repeated experience in resolving real life problems through analysis and discussion of a variety of cases.

First, participants should go through and prepare each case individually by assuming the role of the decision-maker in the situation and then decide on appropriate decisions and action plans to resolve the problems faced. During this preparation, a participant struggles with, first, defining the appropriate decision areas; second, specifying objectives, purposes and criteria for resolving the issues; third, generating options to resolve the issues; fourth, evaluating the alternatives on the basis of information available, which is usually incomplete; and, finally, deciding the course of action and contingency plan on the basis of their best judgment. In other words, they apply a problem solving approach.

The individual participants next discuss their inferences and action plans in the forum of a small group of 6 to 10 participants. Different individuals might and in fact do, come up with different inferences and action plans. Group members need to carefully listen, understand and appreciate these different views and thus expand their range of thinking as well as depth of analysis. For this to happen effectively, the group atmosphere should be as free as possible and focusing on important issues.

Discussion in plenary should be used to reflect on group discussion. Synthesis should be made within the initial small group, aiming to arrive at both an improved understanding of and better decisions made in, the particular situation, and also tentative generalizations about individual approaches, attitudes and values for improved decision making in the future.

As a resource person you should learn how to open the discussion.

Questions

Asking questions is key to executing your strategy for the session. Of course, your most immediate concern is to generate focused participation. This makes your first question critical. When thinking about your questions, consider this observation from Albert Einstein:

“Most teachers waste their time by asking questions which are intended to discover what a pupil does not know, whereas the true art of questioning has for its purpose to discover what the pupil knows or is capable of knowing.”

Then use questions to move learners through the five typical stages of case analysis:

• What is the situation?
• What are the possibilities for action?
• What are the consequences of each?
• What action, then, should be taken?
• What general principles and concepts seem to follow from this analysis?

Within each phase, you can use questions to help trainees. These learning questions can be considered to fall into two broad categories, low order questions and high order questions. Low order questions are of value in case study to obtain information, developing data handling skills and to draw attention to related points. On the other hand, high order questions are used to stimulate discussion, encourage learners to develop ideas and suggestions and to develop analytical and problem-solving skills. Steps to be followed in Case Study method:-

• obtain information;
• clarify a point;
• confirm a point;
• draw attention to related points;
• encourage debate;
• resolve a debate;
• change the direction of the discussion;
• suggest a hypothesis;
• stimulate abstract thought; and,
• begin a summation.

Careful questioning allows you to keep trainees focused on analysis as you seek to achieve class/course learning outcomes. Questions are also good tools to help you

• emphasize that it is important to stay on a topic, or that it is time to move on to another;
• clarify previous questions—learners may not answer right away because they did not understand what was being asked the first time;
• refer trainees to a particular exhibit in the case;
• focus attention back on the case and away from a dispute that is going nowhere;
• pay attention to and honor a good point made by a trainee;
• diffuse tension or conflict through humor where appropriate;
• remove a comment put on the board during a brainstorming session that learners (and you!) recognize as no longer relevant or accurate; and
• push trainees to support their claims with empirical evidence (from the case, other class material, life experience, etc.) and/or with logic and reasoned argumentation.

A question typology is given in the Annexure - I

The role of Case Leader or Facilitator

The case leader starts the case discussion session with an opening statement regarding the objectives of the session and the procedure for conducting the session. The following are some of the suggestions for effective case leading:

• The case leader should make a thorough study of the case before the commencement of the session.
• He should try to create a free and supportive climate for discussion.
• There should be adequate rapport between the case leader and the group.
• There must be participation by all the members of the course.
• Only one point should be discussed at a time. The group members focus their attention on the point under discussion.
• All relevant factors must be discussed one after another, taking care to exclude extraneous factors, which takes the discussion off the track.
• The direction given by the case leader to shape the progress of the discussion depends on the level of trainees and the nature of the case. In the case of junior levels or a problem-finding case, he can guide the discussion and enable the trainees to identify the problem. In the case of senior levels or a problem-stated case, the trainer plays a sub role and allows trainees to come up with solutions. He can bring up facts of the case to light in case the trainees are not able to spot on their own. He thus supplements the resources of the group.
• He builds up discussion of the case based on the trainees’ contribution. He does not project his views and predisposition into the discussion.
• He allows free discussion of the case, and without surrendering his position as a Facilitator member, becomes part of the group in discussion.
• As the case leader is aware of the objectives of the case, during discussion session he keeps the objectives in mind while participating and guiding the discussions.
• Instead of agreeing or disagreeing with the views expressed by trainees, the case leader can pose questions in such a way that the trainees among themselves may agree or disagree.
• The case leader gives a final summary outlining the findings of the group, keeping in mind the training objectives of the case and laying necessary stress on them.

Active Listening

Once the case is under way, you want to concentrate on three things: “individual comments, group thinking, and your lesson plan.” A case discussion places you in a continuing cycle of questioning, listening, and responding.

Listening is most important—without effective listening, the cycle will be stymied after the first discussion question is thrown out to the class and quickly answered. Actively listening to trainee comments allows you to use follow-up questions to push individual or collective thinking; you can take advantage of opportunities to highlight important points or to shift the conversation to a new direction. Learning to be alert and receptive to trainee comments and questions throughout a class session will help you seek clarifications when a trainee comment is unclear, lead learners to themes and assumptions that underlie a diverse series of comments, and bring the session to a positive closure. Listening also allows you to gauge the level of preparation and understanding that exists in the class in general and in individual trainees. Effective listening leads logically to the responses that a trainee makes during a case discussion.

Debriefing

To ensure that trainees leave having learned the objectives you selected for the session you will need to “debrief” them. It is best to use different approaches to this final component of “running” a case. Using any one approach quickly becomes too routine to be taken seriously. The following approaches to debriefing are useful.

Faculty-led Summary and Conclusion

Here you might return to your board space-or wherever you have kept track of the conversation – and highlight important points which connect specifies to general principles. At this point you can choose to move from the specific to the general, or vice versa. With this faculty-led approach, you will likely do most of the talking during the last ten to fifteen minutes of the class.

Learner-defined and Conclusion Process

This you can achieve by asking learners to report out-from groups or as individuals – what they consider to be the summary and conclusion of the session. Or, you may ask them to take a few minutes and write down their thoughts. If you do the latter, since you want to be sure they get the lessons you have in mind, you should

• be sure to ask a specific question – or set of questions – designed to elicit the kind of information you seek, and
• feedback that information to them either during the next class session or as a handout for the next class session.

Advantages of the Case Study Method: Some of the advantages of Case method are:-

• It has been said that ‘wisdom cannot be told’. The case study helps one to learn administrative wisdom.
• The case method is an intensely participative method of learning.
• There is immediate feedback from fellow trainees with regard to the comments and observations made by the trainees.
• The method presents a sample of real life in slow motion.
• The case method condenses in a series of incidents; a shorter period of time opportunities for decision making which otherwise takes years. One can afford to make mistakes, which are costly in real life.
• It improves skills of problem solving, decision-making and communication.
• The method makes the trainees aware of the fact that there is a limitation in individual thinking as against group thinking and helps in developing an attitude of consulting people rather than following one’s own line of thought only.
• The case discussion also helps the formation of correct interpersonal relationships and carries conviction with the participants that there is no single right solution to any problem, as there is nothing absolutely right or absolutely wrong in the field of human behaviour in general and public administration in particular.

Disadvantages of Case Study Method

However, the Case method has its share of limitations. Some of these are:-

• It is difficult to produce good cases, as case writing is a time-consuming process.
• Where case method is the only method of instruction, a large number of cases will be required serially to illustrate all the principles of administration to be covered in a particular area. Preparation of such large number of cases is a particularly difficult task.
• No picture of a past situation, however, realistic, is identical with what is expected to portray. The case writers’ interpretations of facts will be different from the facts themselves as felt and experienced by the administrators concerned in the real life situation.

Annexure - I

Question Typology

Question Type

Sample Questions

Open-Ended

What are your reactions to this situation?

What is going on here?

Diagnostic

What factors influenced the evolution of events?

Why did X decide to do Y?

Information

Who are the actors? What are their interests/positions?

How do we know?

Challenge

Why do you think it was appropriate (or inappropriate) for X to do Y? What challenge arguments run counter to that view?

Action

What does X need to do to achieve his stated goals?

How else might he have handled the situation?

Priority/Sequence

What immediate action should he take?

Should he do A or B first?

Prediction

What do you think is going to happen now?

Hypothetical

What might have been the result if X had done Z instead?

Extension

What assumptions underlie X’s behavior/actions? What are the downside risks of that approach as opposed to another?

Generalization

Would other experienced policymakers be likely to do the same? What skills do participants need in order to achieve their stated goals?

Comprehension

What led to failure here?

Application

How do you deal with conflict at work? Did they do the same things here?

Analysis/Comparison

Where else have we seen this kind of situation?

How is that similar/different from what we see here?

Synthesis

How did prior actions affect—expand or limit—the options available here?

Evaluation

What is the best course of action here?

SKILL DEVELOPMENT EXERCISE

Objectives: After reading this article, you will be able to:

• State the need for a skill development exercise with a view to accelerating the learning process; and
• Assess the demand on a trainer attempting to devise an appropriate skill development exercise

Introduction

The learning of job skills is fundamental to the development of a productive work force and is therefore a substantial policy concern1. Surprisingly little attention has been given to the theoretical structure of these learning activities 2. In a theoretical construct, this could be depicted in a two dimensional model, in which one dimension depicts learning activities generating cognitive messages that develop the worker’s understanding of the task and other depicting the habituate messages that develop more instinctive task responses3.

In this context what actually does the learning requirement constitute, assumes considerable importance. Learning involves adapting existing knowledge or skill to a new task or environment. The learning objectives define the areas of modification, i.e. – whether it is a knowledge area, skill area or the willingness area. Categories of ‘Knowledge’ include: facts, procedure, concepts and principles. Similarly, ‘Skill’ categories are thinking, acting, reacting and interacting. Willingness is an entity in itself.

It is thus apparent that though “Skill Development Exercise” is not a training method in itself, but can be very effective supplement or an extension to a method.

Purpose

A Skill Development Exercise should therefore, provide the learner with an opportunity to understand the work she is being trained to deal with, i.e. the cognitive dimension. It should help her to discard errors and to telescope, refine and integrate the various aspects of a situation into a rapid, smooth, accurate and effective sequence. This enables her to operate on an automatic and comfortable basis, without analysing and re-analysing each step of an activity afresh, i.e. the habituate dimension.

It would be pertinent to refer to the analogy of the learning of a medical student as an intern4. Normally a resident doctor is employed in the same hospital at which he “studied” as a medical student. The resident does assume more responsibility and undertakes more complex procedures, but essentially watches and then is watched doing various procedures, before doing many repetitions of each procedure on his own. In time, the main teaching resource provided by the programme is the ready availability of experienced help when the resident makes a mistake or faces an unexpectedly complex decision. Drawing inference from this, if we are to develop a process model that can be used to characterise job learning activities, let’s consider two simple examples—typing and the mastery of the multiplication tables—that illustrate the similarity of job skill learning across seemingly diverse motor and mental skills.

Typing classes may stretch from a few weeks to several months, depending on the level of student involvement. The learning process typically involves a brief period of formal lectures, followed by intensive typing practice, in the classroom (supervised) and as homework assignments. Clearly task repetition is the main learning technique. Typists may then continue learning on the job in a more traditional learning-by-doing mode.

Mastery of the multiplication tables can also take few weeks to several months, depending on the programme and the student’s background. Despite the fact that this is a “mental” skill with no motor skill involvement, the learning process is quite similar to that for typing skills, including a brief period of formal lectures, followed by intensive practice in the classroom (supervised) and as homework assignments. Again task repetition is the main learning technique.5

Note that (i) these two quite different skills have similar learning processes, and (ii) the basic discussion differs in no essential way from that of the earlier discussion of the training of a resident doctor. Whether the task is physical or mental, simple or elaborate, two broad types of learning activity seem crucial, instruction and repetition 6.  From learning prospective, instruction and repetition activate deeper mechanisms, including  (i) cognitive processes such as conceptualisation, in which the trainee frames the activity in his mind, and (ii) habituate processes, in which he develops a more instinctive representation of the process.7

Timings

Appropriateness and availability of right amount of time constitute crucial factors for selection of a skill development exercise. This could be elaborated as under:

(a) Time for undertaking:

As learner-centred activity, there is need to provide substantial time. This is necessary because the learning process shifts from trainer to the learner/ learning group, though the responsibility of overall control vests in the trainer.

(b) Time for planning:

The requirement of time for planning a SDE depends on the situation, the learning objectives and entry behaviour of trainees.

(c) Time for preparation.

The preparation time for a SDE has to be a consideration and it varies depending upon the type of SDE. If it is to be utilised in conjunction with Role-play, time is needed for role scripts, the option being dual, multiple or role reversal. If it’s is to be as an adjunct to Case Study method, then depending on the nature of the skill, conceptual or otherwise, preparation of exercises would require time.

(d) Time of the day:

Skill Development Exercises can logically be built in at any time of the day in a training course. But doing it in the afternoon sessions would for obvious reasons be the best time to optimise learning.

Learning Cycle

We have already discussed the experiential theory of learning – “Kolb Learning Cycle” propounded by David A Kolb in the article on “Experiential Learning”. What needs to be emphasised is that Skill Development Exercise addresses all the four stages of the learning cycle viz., 

        (i) Direct Experience 

        (ii) Reflecting on experience 

        (iii) Generalisation about experience and 

        (iv) Implementing new experience. 

We can relate it as follows.

(a) While undertaking the exercise the learners get direct experience. Therefore the exercises should be challenging to involve the learners fully.

(b) After undergoing the exercise, the learners should be provided the opportunity to stand back and ponder over the experience and develop data. A few learners could be assigned the role of “Observers”, so that they can contribute to the generation of data.

(c) On the basis of the data generated, the learners should be provided opportunity to make connections, to draw lessons, to synthesise. On this basis they should be encouraged to generalise and link to the theory and/or concepts thereby linking to the utility of the skill to the work situation.

(d) This is the stage when they [learners] can connect to its applicability i.e. plan how to apply the skill in their respective work situations. Such an understanding will enhance the scope of the transfer of learning to the work situation.

Stage of its introduction

To derive optimum learning effect, Skill Development Exercises should be introduced only after the trainer has provided the opportunity to explore the underlying principles and ideas. It should be introduced before the trainer takes up another skill or another subject, which requires different responses.

The knowledge and skill acquired should be practised in as wide a variety of situations as possible, with particular emphasis on situations likely to recur. The more varied the situations, the more useful and transferable the learning will become and the better it will be retained. For example, effective knowledge and skill in the matter of applying the provisions of government rules / regulations can be attained only through extensive practice of application of such rules in a variety of situations.

Categories of Skill Development Exercises

        Skill Development can be classified into following two categories:

                 Individual; and

                 Group.

Individual exercises

Suitable in developing technical skill, in understanding the principles, structures and processes of individual speciality. They are also effective in making each learner participate and get involved in the process of learning. For example, Jigsaw puzzle for developing the skill of sifting information or In-basket exercise for prioritising skills is an individual SDE.

Group Exercises

Suitable in developing human skills and conceptual skills. They are particularly suitable where one particular activity is an element of a total activity, the successful completion of which requires the joint efforts and mutual understanding of the roles to be performed by a number of individuals, or even groups of individuals. A management game is a group SDE for developing inter-personal skills.

Preparation of exercise material

The following steps may be adopted in preparing skill development exercises: -

a) Determining the learning points.

b) Categorising the points suitable for individual exercises and group exercises.

c) Assessing the time required and available for the exercise.

d) Preparing the specific solution or group of solutions. In case of more than one possible response, specify the limits of flexibility, within which the learner’s solutions must come.

The first step in determining the learning points is to break down the task into:

(i) Doing Units:

Which refer to specific skills, operations or procedures which occur repeatedly in the performance of a task; and

(ii) Knowledge Units:

Which consists of theories, principles, rules and regulations and other useful information directly related to the doing units.

Checking Efficacy of a Skill Development Exercise

Task: Does it lead to performance / practice of the skill involved? Is the learner aware? And has the ability to perform? How was the knowledge acquired? Through Discussion – Guided Reading – Guided Practice?

Time: How long will it take to complete? Has the time been set according to learner’s pace?

Monitoring: Can the completion of the SDE be monitored? Did the learner seek/need any help in finding the solution? Are there any risks in completing it? How were those risks safeguarded?

Learning: What is the learning target? How would learning be facilitated? What is the degree of learning difficulty?

Achievement: How to find out that the task has been accomplished? How will the learner get to know?

Conclusion

Skill Development is one of the traditional ways of ensuring that the learners not only acquire particular knowledge and skill, but are also able to transfer and retain them i.e. they are able to apply such knowledge and skill effectively in real life situations.

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Annexure – I

Examples of Skill Development Exercise

A. Listening Skills Development Exercise for Interpreters – Instruction to the learner

1. Observe conversation between two persons conducted outside of earshot in video for 10 minutes.

2. Note as follows:-

        i. How facial expressions reveal what the speakers may be saying

        ii. How gestures reveal what they are taking about

        iii. How body movements reveal what they may be discussing

        iv. How posture reveal what they are talking about

        v. How eye contact reveals what they are saying

3. In what languages are the persons talking

4. Write a note on the conversation

5. Check it with the video of the conversation

6. Verify your achievement

7. Repeat this exercise

Note that improve your listening skill is an ongoing and lifelong endeavour. As you gain experience and confidence your skill will improve.

B. Multi – Tasking Exercise

Multi-Tasking is working on a number of tasks simultaneously. You have experienced that someone, simultaneously asking questions, listening for information, respondening the queries and entering data. If you are to develop your skill on multi-tasking you are to undergo this multi-tasking exercise.

1. Have someone record passages from magazines or newspapers on tape. The subject matter of these passage is irrelevant, but it should not be too technical or contain too many statistics and proper names. As you play back the tape,

        a) “shadow” the speaker,

        b) repeat everything the speakers says verbatim.

2. Please do the following activities:-

        a) Record your speaking while shadowing your speaker.

        b) Play back the tape

        c) Check your performance with respect to the speaker

3. Once you feel comfortable talking and listening at the same time and are not leaving out too much, begin performing other tasks while shadowing.

a) First, write the numerals 1 to 100 on a piece of paper as you repeat what the speaker says (make sure you are writing and speaking at the same time, not just writing during pauses)

b) check your performance of shadowing and writing numerals,

c) when you are able to do that, write the numerals in reverse order, from 100 to 1.

d) Check your performance.

4. When you are able to do exercise 3 with minimal errors, begin writing out words while shadowing.

        a) Begin with your name and address, written repeatedly.

        b) Then move on to a favourite poem or a passage.

        c) Check your performance of shadowing and writing text.

5. While shadowing the tape as in the previous exercises, write down all the numbers and proper names you hear. Then play the tape back and check to see if you wrote them correctly.  These exercises should be repeated as many times as necessary over a long period of time.

ROLE PLAY

Objectives: 

After reading this article, you will be able to:

        • State salient points for preparing to use Role Play as a training method

        • Describe prerequisites for writing or selecting a Role Play script

        • Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using a Role Play in a training situation.

What it is?

It is a learning technique in which course participants are presented with a situation, which they explore, by acting out the roles of the people involved. Role Play is a popular way of teaching interpersonal skills, because it resembles real life more closely than some other training methods. As participants become actively involved they are made more aware of the connections between thought, feeling and behaviour which have such an influence on the style and effectiveness of worker. 

The use of role-play can :

1. provide a dynamic way of exploring problems;
2. involve participants actively;
3. give opportunities for participants to practise newly learned skills,. Observe and practise different ways of responding to situations;
4. allow people to make mistakes in a risk-free environment, without fear of failure and embarrassment.

When to use a Role Play

Since role plays are most effective as vehicles in which to practise or learn face-to-face communication skills they are most suitable for use where participants can practise ways to deal with individuals and their problems. For the trainer, role plays provide a good way to involve trainees actively and intensively in a training session, helping them to learn in a more active and participative way.

Occasions for using a role play may be:

• Where the need is to practise effective communication and inter-personal skills. Examples of these situations are negotiation, performance appraisal and disciplinary interviews.
• As an opportunity for the trainer to involve trainees intensively in the learning process.
• As an opportunity to practise approaches to forthcoming real life situations.
• As an opportunity to replay a situation that was not successfully handled in the past in order to extract lessons for the future.
• Where a change of attitude is desirable, trainees can come to appreciate the viewpoint of another person or as a member of that group.

How to Choose a role play

1. Choosing a scenario

The choice of scenario by the trainer should be governed by the need for the role play to contribute to the overall training objectives. Thereafter, the choice is affected by only 3 factors. These are:

• Credibility – the degree to which the situation described is familiar to or recognizable by the intended participants.

• Relevance – the scenario must permit the trainer to extract the learning point(s) required from the situation to be played.

• Level of complexity – this must reflect the experience, education and understanding of the intended participants.

2. Choosing the participants

When first introducing role play to a training event there is bound to be a degree of uncertainty and apprehension among the trainees unless they have previously been involved in role playing. Therefore, it is advisable to choose the most outgoing or confident of the trainees to have the first attempt (or, of course, someone who has done it before). It is sometimes a good idea to try and match people with the role play characters but in many cases playing a character very different from oneself can become a real opportunity to explore others’ attitudes and feelings. It is often not necessary, for instance, to find a woman to play a female part, or an older person to play someone nearing retirement. However, to increase participants’ comfort on their first go it may be advisable to choose roles that are not too distant from their own.

3. Use of Observers

While running role plays there will normally be a number of people who are not directly involved in the action. To involve them more and to enable them, as well as the role players, to learn from the role play, they can be nominated as observers or supporters. The role of the observer is to:

1. Watch the action and to gauge the effectiveness of the participants behaviour, in order to be able to feed back what was observed. Some conclusions about the effectiveness of what was observed should form part of the review session.
2. Remain uninvolved in order to see things that the players may not.
3. Raise the learning points for the participants and the rest of the group. A structured observation sheet is good method of ensuring that the observer is looking for the relevant things.

What it will achieve?

All role plays should be organised to achieve the following objectives:

            1. reproduce real life as closely as possible;

            2. provide an opportunity to practise difficult situations;

            3. provide an opportunity to practise new skills;

            4. develop confidence;

            5. enhance learning by building on success;

            6. change negative habits/ reinforce positive habits;

            7. develop an attitude of professionalism;

            8. promote analytical skill through self appraisal and observing others

How to conduct Role Plays?

1. Preparation

• Determine the purpose of the role play and appropriateness to objectives
• If the role play has written, established roles, study and confirm suitability for trainee group, etc. (as in case study preparation)
• If the role play is not a prepared one, take the following steps:

1. Develop a situation (realistic, not contrived) description
2. Define the problem or issues in the situation that the role players have to deal with.
3. Determine the number of role players needed and whether or not you want to use observers
4. Develop the specific roles for each role person. (This may be briefly written – as a short sentence or two or as long as a few paragraphs) What should the person be like? What characteristics and background should he or she have? How does the person feel about the other person(s)? the situation? The problem?

• Determine how you want to stage the role play, e.g. one role play enactment observed by the total group? Simultaneous enactment (“concurrent” role plays”) with everyone participating in the same role play at the same time? Take time into consideration.

• Develop a set of process questions or discussion guide for the post role play processing.

2. Introduction

• Describe the purpose for the role play.
• Describe the situation briefly and clearly, even if prepared written roles are used.
• Unless everyone is participating, select the role players.(a volunteer who gives a “bad” performance could lose face before his/her peers) Take care in assigning roles (e.g. do not chose people who might over identify with problem, etc.)
• Brief the actors. Allow enough time to understand/read roles. Tell role players to make up facts or information not covered in roles or that they forget but which seems necessary. Do not try to “stump” other actors. Do not “overact”.
• Assign tasks; structure what the audience or observers should look for.
• Set the scene. Help relieve tension/anxiety of actors by smiling, physical contact, checking for readiness.

Remember, most of the common problems in managing role plays can be avoided by a carefully prepared and delivered introduction.

3. Monitoring the Role Play

• Start the action. When several groups are involved, all should begin at the same time.
• Stay out of the line of vision of the role players. Quietly observe.
• Coach only if absolutely essential – if role player has difficulty getting started, breaks, role, etc. (unless you are using a “stop action” role play procedure where you have explained beforehand that you will be interrupting the role play at various points to discuss or add information or switch roles).
• Cut the role play. Try not to be too abrupt. Don’t continue too long; often the role play will arrive at a natural end point. Just a few minutes of interaction can provide data for a long discussion, so don’t over-load the audience.
• Thank the role players, using real names. This removes them from their roles and provides a bridge to the discussion to follow. This action is known as derolling.

4. Post-play discussion

• Generally, allow role players to comment first. If an adversarial situation existed for the role play, allow the protagonist – the “hero”, person in the “hot seat,” person to whom the issue is presented and who has the responsibility for problem solving – to go first; then the antagonist.
• Open discussion to audience and/or observers. Try to trace the way situation and interaction developed; why the role players behaved as they did; how the interaction might have gone differently (to achieve a better outcome).
• Encourage audience/observers to describe their own feelings as certain events occurred, rather than only analysing and dissecting the behaviour of the role players.
• Summarise major issues. Tie to role play purpose. (Do not evaluate the acting ability of the role players or get stuck in their interpretation of their roles. Rather, stay focussed on what the role play contributes to the understanding of the problem they were demonstrating and/or attempting to solve).

5. Deriving learning

Whether the group was a real client group or a class room group, several questions concerning the use of this technique should be discussed after the role play is over and results have been reviewed. Some of these questions are:

• What other situations could this technique be helpful with?
• When is it desirable not to use anticipatory practice role playing?
• What are the key points to remember if I’m trying to show someone else how to use this technique?
• Can I use the technique on my own, alone? How?

Writing Role Plays

The business of writing your own role plays is time consuming but very rewarding if you can ‘hook’ the interest and imagination of the group with a situation with which they can identify easily; their enthusiasm is enhanced and the learning greater. Review sessions under these circumstances can be more difficult, however, as one struggles to separate what happened in the role play from reality in order to concentrate on the effects of the participants behaviour.

To write your own role-plays

1. Choose a situation (industry, environment, problem) with which you are familiar.
2. Consider carefully what lessons you wish to draw and construct the characters and situations accordingly.
3. Keep the language simple and appropriate to your audience.
4. Do not tie down the players so tightly that there is no room to improvise, to react to what is said or done, or to interpret events in different ways.
5. Keep briefing as short as you can but give enough detail of the characters to make them recognisable, credible and with some depth in a given context of position, age, etc.
6. Always try to build in a difference - of opinion, of character, of attitude, etc. – to enliven the play and make the players confront the problems described.
7. Try to avoid confusion over male and female roles and be careful with the awkward language associated with that problem( she/he, his/hers/their, him/her/them). Take care with names.

Advantages of role play

1. Enables learner to express hidden feelings.
2. Enables learner to discuss private issues and problems.
3. Enables learner to empathise with others and understand their motivations.
4. Gives practice in various types of behaviour.
5. Portrays generalised social problems and dynamics of group interaction, formal and informal.
6. Gives life and immediacy to academic descriptive material (history, English, economics, geography).
7. Provides opportunity for non-articulate learners and emphasizes importance of non-verbal, emotional responses.
8. Motivational and effective because it involves activity.
9. Provides rapid feedback for both learner and facilitator.
10. Is learner-centred and addresses itself to the needs and concerns of the trainee; the group can control content and pace.
11. Close gap between training and real life situations.
12. Change attitudes.
13. Permits training in the control of feelings and emotions.

Disadvantages of role play

1. Facilitator loses control over what is learnt and the order in which it is learnt.
2. Simplifications can mislead.
3. Uses a large amount of time.
4. Uses other resources – people, space, special items.
5. Depends on the quality of facilitator and learner.
6. Impact may trigger off withdrawal or defence symptoms.
7. May be seen as too entertaining or frivolous.
8. May dominate learning to the exclusion of solid theory and facts.
9. May depend on what learners already know.

Follow up

Just as we began by stressing the importance of considering the function of the role-play within the total curriculum, so we must consider the way in which the exercise will lead naturally into the next activity.

If the role-play has been used to teach a skill or rehearse a new situation then it is logical to repeat it until the necessary degree of competence has been reached. If its purpose was to raise questions, then the follow-up should be arranged to answer them. Sometimes the role-play would have been used to arouse an awareness of a subject or problem and the group may want to discuss how to proceed; at other times the role-play will act as the final part of a sequence of instruction, a summing up as it were.

Whatever the objectives of using role-play, one must always consider the connection between it and the next activity. Such activities may include writing an essay, further reading around the subject, formal lessons, further role-plays or simulations, or even putting into practice what has been learnt. The main thing is to avoid leaving the role-play activity in a vacuum.

By following a systematic route through the use of role-play, a facilitator is more likely to make efficient use of the time and resources available. More importantly perhaps, he will finish up near the point he aimed for and with fewer detours on the way.

References

1. Turner, David – ROLE PLAYS A Sourcebook of Activities for Trainers, Via Books Private Limited (1999)
2. Morris and Sashkin, Orgnisation Behaviour in Action: Skill Building Exercise, West Publishing, 1978.
3. Engel, Horbert M. – Handbook of Creative Learning Exercises (Gulf Publishing, 1973)
4. Ments, Morry van - The Effective Use of Role Play (Revised Edition), Kogan Page, London,1994

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GLOSSARY OF COMMONLY USED TRAINING TERMS

One problem which has inhibited effective and efficient training systems in the past has been semantics. The absence of a standard vocabulary has created understandable confusion. Until all the parties to the process share some common definitions, they will naturally experience needless debates, delays and disappointments.

The definitions given below make no pretence of settling the semantics issues, however, one consistent definition can be of great help in understanding and structuring knowledge of a particular subject It will serve the purpose of minimising semantic interference. An attempt has been made, to define terms related to training profession so that trainers, trainees, training-managers, line-managers, professional bodies and all other involved with training start at the same reference point.

Action Learning

Action learning is a systematic process through which individuals learn by doing. Through the process, people increase their self awareness and develop new knowledge, attitude and behaviours as well as skills for making changes and redefining their roles and responsibilities within new or changing work place context. By experiencing an event first hand a long-term change in behaviour can result. This form of change is called action learning or learning by doing.

Activity Learning

A general term used to indicate learning by means of active participation of the learner in such exercises as projects-work, group discussion, as opposed to passive means such as lectures or films.

Audio-Visual Aids

Aids to communication, with special reference to controlled learning which utilise both sight and hearing.

Andragogy

A learning process in which both learner and trainer assume responsibility for what, when, how and to whom information is to be taught.

Appreciation Training

Training usually of short duration, designed to give a generalised understanding of a subject area or of the uses of certain techniques. It is not intended to equip the learners with specific skills and usually arranged for people who require some knowledge of the work of others.

Aptitude

Natural ability to acquire and utilise types of knowledge or skills.

Assessment Of Training

A general term for the processes of ascertaining whether the trainees are gradually acquiring desired competences, as reflected by objectives.

Behavioural Objectives

An unambiguous statement of what a learner is expected to be able to do as a result of learning experience including the facilities and constraints under which performance is to be carried out and the level of performance.

Brainstorming

A technique used as a means of finding solutions to various problems or as a means of obtaining ideas. A small group of people with or without conscious knowledge of the subject meet and submit any suggestion or ideas that come in to their heads, no matter how fantastic or impossible it may sound. Subsequently all the ideas submitted at the meeting are sifted and assessed.

Business Games

A learning conference in which group of learners each represent imaginary organisation in a carefully defined situation.

Case Study Method

A learning technique in which a real situation or a series of actual events is presented to trainees for their analysis and consideration of possible solutions of problems identified. Their findings are thereafter compared with the way in which real life situation subsequently developed.

Coach

Someone whose job is to teach people to improve at a skill. The coach must have an in-depth understanding from the fundamental skills to advanced techniques and strategies. A good coach always seeks out new information and works as a motivator--someone who is able to lay out a plan to help learning.

Coaching

Systematically increasing the ability and experience of the trainee by giving him planned tasks, coupled with continuous appraisal and counseling.

Competence

Ability to perform a particular activity to a prescribed standard. The activity may involve the development of a variety of skills.

Competence Based Need

The process of identification of training need based on difference in the expected level and actual performance of an individual.

Contracting

Contracting is the process that enables both learners and facilitators to a learning agreement to meet their obligations in order to deliver the objectives. It also involves building a good working relationship between learner and facilitator. It continues throughout the life of a contract and involves managing proactively to anticipate future needs as well as reacting to situations that arise. The central aim of contracting is to fulfill the conditions as agreed in the contract. Contracting may also involve aiming for continuous improvement in performance over the life of the agreement.

Counseling

A direct personal relationship in which a counsellor makes available to another person his experience and knowledge in order to assist the person in, solving his problem.

Course Assessment

A general term covering the judgment of suitability of a course to meet identified learning needs and of the extent to which those needs have been satisfied.

Critical Incident Technique

The process of collecting from supervisors and peers established priorities in order of their importance for on the job activities deemed critical to the job. It focuses attention on job behaviour as such and on judgments as to what behaviour makes for success or lack of it where in the lack of success is indicative of human error.

Curriculum

A statement of the subject matter (content) of a training course or part of it. It may indicate the time to be devoted to each part of the training but not usually the order in which the items should be learnt or the methods of instruction to be used. The word curriculum is used as synonym of syllabus.

De-Briefing

Debriefing is a report of a mission or task. It is to question someone in detail about work they have done.

De-Roling

In the same way that learners need to be assisted in to a role, usually via building belief, so they need to be taken out of role at the end. This can be via reflective activities through calling by his/her name.

Discovery Learning

A method of training in which the trainee is presented with tasks which engage him in the search for and selection of clues on how to proceed.

Discussion Method

A training technique in which the information that is transmitted comes from participants themselves rather than from the trainer. The learner as a group are thus active is learning themselves.

Distance Learning

A learning process in, which there is quasi- permanent separation of the trainer and the learner. Programmed instructional material is made available to the learner for learning. The trainer provides feedback on the basis of exercises attempted as part of the programmed learning. Learner may also contact the trainer at some agreed forum and time.

Education

Activity which aim at developing, the knowledge, moral values and understanding required in all walks of life rather than the knowledge and skills relating, to a limited field of activity.

Entry Behaviour

The existing behaviour of a learner in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes previously learnt which a learner brings to a learning event.

Evaluation

The assessment of the total value of a training system, training course or programme in social as well as financial terms. It differs from validation in that it attempts to measure the overall cost benefit of the course or programme and not just achievement of its laid down objectives.

Facilitator

One who assists or aids in execution of a task. Someone who helps a person to do something more easily or find the answer to a problem, by discussing things and suggesting ways of doing things.

Feed Back

The process by which information about results of an action are communicated to the learner or trainer.

Flip Chart

Sheets of detachable blank papers used for display purposes with felt-tip pens or crayons.

Flow Chart

A diagrammatic representation of a system in which inter- relationship between its component parts are shown by various symbols and inter connecting arrows.

Focuser

Focuser is the person who leads learner to focus on her experience and derive the data in order to solve a problem or suggest ideas.

Further Education

Full time or part time education for persons who have left school/colleges. It is often used to denote courses of a predominantly vocational aspect leading to technical and professional qualifications.

Goal

A description of a condition which will exist as the desired result of an action plan.

Group Dynamics

The study of inter action of the behavior of individuals as members of a group.

Guide

A person who influence someone's behavior ie, Knowledge, skill and attitude.

Identification of Training Needs

An examination of an organizations present and expected operations and the manpower necessary to carry them out, in order to identify the numbers and categories of staff needing to be trained or retrained. It may also refer to the training needs of an individual to enable him to reach the required standard of performance in his current or future jobs.

In-Basket/ In-Tray Method

A form of training which attempts to simulate the working situation by setting the trainees relatistic tasks by presenting him with papers such as letters or memo’s in the in-basket or tray. The results of the exercise are then analysed and assessed on the basis of decisions made.

Incident Process

A variation of the case study in which a small team or group analysis of the case is used to reveal the critical facts. The participants must ask questions to a knowledgeable person in order to get the important data.

Induction Training

Arrangements made by or on behalf of the management to familiarize the trainee/ new-employee with the working of organization.

Institutional Training

Training conducted away from the job. Such training is usually carried on for groups of trainees in shops, laboratories or class rooms depending upon the nature of training.

Instructor

A trainer or a teacher.

Instruction Schedule

A detailed breakdown of specific skills for purpose of instruction. It aims to set down the best learning sequence in order to help the trainees master new skills to be learnt and stipulates key points in the job.

Issue Based Need

Training needs identified due to some change in the organization i.e technology, policy, procedure etc.

Job Analysis

The process of examining a job in detail in order to identify its component tasks.

Job Description

A broad statement of the purpose scope, responsibilities and tasks which constitute a particular job.

Key Result Area

A tasks or series of tasks where excellent performance might transform efficiency of the individuals/ groups/ organization.

Knowledge, Skill, Attitude (KSA)

The essential determinants of effective performance.

Learning

The process of gaining and using knowledge, understanding or skill through experience, practice and exercise.

Learning Community

Learning community is a group of people who share common values and beliefs, are actively engaged in learning together from each other. A learning community supports and inspires the intellectual and personal development of all members of the community.

Learning Organization

An organization that facilitates the learning of all its members and consciously transforms itself and its context. Organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to learn together.

Learning Plateau

A temporary halt in progress in the process of learning.

Learning/ Teaching System

A system designed to meet specific learning/ teaching activities.

Lecturette

The short informal lecture or lecturatte is basically a meaqns on expanding instruction. It is an auxiliary technique used in conjunction with other instructional methods to clarify and expand ideas.

Lession

A method of instruction incorporating a number of instructional techniques designed to ensure participation of the learning group in reaching the specified behaviour objectives.

Mentor

A person who gives another person help and advice over a period of time and often also teaches them how to do their job.

Modeling

A form of training which gives a detailed description of a typical system which can be used as the basis for an analytical discussion.

Modular Training

Separate training programme designed as a series to lead to a certain level of qualification.

Off-The-Job Training

Training away from the normal work situation and day-to-day pressures.

On-The-Job Training

Training given in normal work situation, appropriate to a task or job.

Organisation

Any enterprise (Government civil political, religious, financial, etc) that uses human, technological, material and financial resources to achieve goals.

Organisational Development

Building flexibility or planning for preparing the organisation, to meet future challenges through human resource development.

Overhead Projector

A projector which projects transparencies on to a screen located behind the operator in such a way that he can maintain visual contact with his audience.

Overview

That part of the training programme which gives a brief description of the content and presentation as to make the trainees aware of what to expect during the training. An overview should also set the theme for the training which the trainees can later refer for linking purpose.

Outdoor Management Development

A popular training technique of learning by doing. The participants are taken out from the boundaries of a formal class room and do some actual physical exercise which involve elements of planning, organizing etc.

Pedagogy

The process in which information is transmitted from a teacher to a student, with the teacher assuming full responsibility for what, when, how and to whom information is taught.

Post Test

A test administered at the end of a learning situation (session, course etc) to ascertain whether the requisite competencies are reflected by behavioural objectives have been achieved.

Pre-Test

A test administered before a learning situation to ascertain existing level of competence.

Programme/ Course

Training programmes refers to tailor made training design based on identification of training needs. Whereas training courses generally refer to the institutionalized training events which are conducted by training institutes based on assessment of generic training needs.

Programmed Instruction

Subject matter arranged in a careful sequence, usually divided in to small steps, and providing regular opportunities for the student to make responses and to know immediately if response is correct.

Programme Learning

A learning situation designed to meet clearly defined objectives, entry conditions, careful selection of methods and incorporates criteria by which effectiveness of training can be reliably assessed in relation to the objectives.

Project Work

A form of exercise leading to accomplishment, within a fixed time, of a definite task, including a report containing recommendations on the problem stated.

Refreezing

A terms used in Kurt Lewin’s learning model, refers to the process of consolidation and stabilization of the new knowledge, skills and behavior styles acquired during a training progamme.

Refresher Training

The process of further training in work currently performed in order to improve job performance.

Reflection

The process of working out meanings of different training experiences for themselves by the trainees so that they can digest and integrate the lessons.

Reinforcement

Refers to conditions which may be introduced into learning situations to increase the probability that a given response will reappear in the same situation.

Role

A set of expectations of how the occupants of a particular position in an organization ought to behave.

Role Playing

A learning technique in which students are presented with a situation which they are required to resolve by acting out the roles of those represented in the situation.

Simulated Training

The training provided in a specially created environment which reproduces important conditions of the working situation, in which formal instruction can be followed and an opportunity given for practicing and applying the skills learnt in workshop or classroom.

Skill

An organised and coordinated pattern of mental and/or physical activity in relation to an object.

Social Capital

Social capital is the level of trust and mutual understanding and the shared values and behaviours that bind the members of human networks and communities and make cooperative action possible. This commitment to collaboration influences the quality of our personal lives and the quality of life in our communities.

Social Skill

A social skill or any skill facilitating interaction and communication with others. It is the ability to communicate, persuade and interact with other members of the society, without undue conflict or disharmony. Social rules and relations are created, communicated and changed in verbal and non verbal ways. The process of learning such skills is called socialization.

Structurer

Structurer is a person who decides the way in which the parts of a system or object are arranged or organized, or a system arranged in this way.

Syllabus

A statement of the subject matter (content) of a training course or part of it. It may indicate the time to be devoted to each part of the training but not usually the order in which the items should be learnt or the methods of instruction to be used. The word curriculum is used as synonym of syllabus.

Syndicate

A small group of trainees formed to consider and to report on a question, problem or exercise set as a part of the training course. The object of the exercise is to promote learning by intra and inter group analysis and discussion.

System

An operational framework of regularly interacting objects, people or events that work together to perform one or more functions together.

T-Group Training

A term used to describe a number of highly participative learning methods whose purpose is to improve trainee's skills in working with other people.

Target Population

The particular group or range of trainees for whom a particular training programme has been designed.

Task

Element of a work or combination of elements of work by means of which a specific result is achieved.

Task Analysis

A systematic analysis of the behaviour required to carry out a task with a view to identify areas of difficulty and the appropriate training techniques and learning aids necessary for successful instruction.

Technique

A device by which learners are stimulated and directed towards specific learning goals. A technique is thus part of a design of the learning experience or a quality of the interface between the trainer and trainee.

Trainer

Any person whose primary responsibility includes the analysis of training needs and/ or design or conduct of the training programmes.

Training

The systematic development of the attitude/ knowledge/ skills pattern required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job.

Training Coordination

The process of planning, organizing and integrating all efforts required in designing, delivering and evaluating of a training programme.

Training Design

The process of converting training objectives in a well thought out and purposefully integrated pattern of different topics to enable the participants to acquire learning as effectively as possible.

Training Function

The specialized activity of training within an organization.

Training Session/ Instruction Plan

A detailed chronological breakdown in terms of objective, content and method for a given session within a training programme.

Training Manager

Person responsible for the management of training function and implementation of a training policy in an organization.

Training Manual

A guide for the use by training staff showing in detail the subject areas and behavioural objectives to be achieved, method of instruction, equipment and materials to be used.

Training Officer

A specialist appointed to provide a service of advice and executive action to enable managers to carry out their training responsibilities.

Training Plan

A comprehensive statement drawn up in the context of the corporate objectives of an organisation in relation to training and providing for such matters as job and personnel specifications, condition of eligibility, selection procedures, training-objectives, and strategy, programmes, time-tables, and syllabuses, location and method of training etc.

Training Programme

An interpretation of training specifications in terms of units of instruction, or learning experiences, in chronological order and showing time allowed for each, the place, the method of instruction and the person responsible for giving it. Synonymous with the work Programme Schedule.

Training Scheme

A series of learning experiences, which may include formal courses/ training programmes and off the job training devised to meet the immediate and foreseeable training needs of an individual.

Training Specification

A detailed statement of what a trainee(s) needs to learn based on comparison between job specification and his present level of competence.

Training Technology

The process, skills, methods, techniques and equipments used in the development and operation of a training system.

Tutoring

The act of giving additional knowledge and guidance to an individual or small group of trainees in an off-the-job informal training situation.

Validation

Process of measuring the extent to which objectives of a training programme have been achieved. It is generally done in two steps :-

INTERNAL: A series of tests and assessments designed to ascertain whether a training programme has achieved the behavior objectives specified.

EXTERNAL: A series of task and assessments designed to ascertain whether the specified performance objectives have been achieved and the behavioural objectives of an internally valid programme, were realistically based on an accurate identification of training needs

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Bibliography:

1. Making and Training Process Work - By HARPER & ROW

2. Training for Development - By LYNTON & PAREEK

3. A Guide Book for International Trainers in Business & Industry - By VINCENT A. MILLER

4. Glossory of Training Terms - By Manpower Service Commission, Deptt. of Employment, London, U.K.

Selected Readings:

Agochiya, Devendra, Every Trainer’s Handbook.

Boydell, T. & Leary, M, Identifying Training Needs, Institute of Personnel and Development, 1996.

Bramley, P, Effective Training, Journal of European Industrial Training

Douglas, M., How Institutions Think

Douglas, Seymour W., Skills Analysis Training.

Grill, J., Learning to Learn: Toward a Philosophy of Education

Harrison, R and Hopkins, R., “The Design of cross-cultural training: an alternative to the University Model” – The Journal of Applied Behavioural Science

Harrison, R., Training and Development

Honey, P. and Mumford, A., A Manual of Learning Styles(3rd Edition), Maidenhead: Honey

Jones, John E.A, Handbook of Structured experiences for Human Relations Training.

Knowles, M., The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (4th Edition), Gulf Publishing Co.

Kolb, David A, Rubin, I and McIntyre, J., On Management and the learning Process in Organisational Psychology: a Book of Readings

Kolb, David A – Rubin, Irvin and McIntyre, James, Organisational Psychology and Experiential Approach.

Kolb, David A , Management and the learning Process.

Kolb, David A., Learning Style Inventory Technique Manual.

Lynton, R., Social Science in Actual Practice: Themes on My Blue Guitar

Mann, Pete with Subas K.C., Manchester Training Handbook (10) Trainer Training – The Manchester Model. IDPM, University of Manchester

Reid, M and Barrington, H., Training Interventions: Managing Employee Development (4th Edition), London: Institute of Personnel and Development..

Revans, R (1980), Action Learning: New Techniques for Management, London: Blond and Briggs.

Senge, Peter M., The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the Learning Organisation., Century Business, 1993.