INTRODUCTION
Organisations need to continuously grow and develop. Moreover, they must be prepared to face the challenges of entering into the 21st century.
Training is an instrument to help the organisation meet the twin challenges of continuous improvement and demands of change. It is therefore essential that it is delivered effectively. Thus, it is necessary to recognise the change in the role of the trainer from being a provider to a facilitator, the learner being the pivot. This principle has been followed throughout this course.
AIMS
The aims of the course are:
1. To provide opportunities for the development of basic instructional skills.
2. To create and manage a learning environment.
DESIGNED FOR
1. Individuals who as part of their duties have some training functions and responsibilities.
2. Trainers who wish to review their instructional skills.
3. Individuals who undertake training duties.
FACILITATORS
The facilitators certificated as competent by the Training Division of the Department of Personnel and Training, Government of India, and are experienced in this field.
STYLE OF THE COURSE
This is a short, intensive course with plenty of activity. With emphasis on practice within small groups, where there will be a maximum of 6 participants to one facilitator. Participants will be encouraged to share their learning experiences with others, and to give and receive support and feedback.
A comprehensive range of reading material will be given to participants to support their course activities. This material will also provide a long-term source of information and guidance. Video films are used to illustrate and review aspects of direct training.
Because the course is intensive and includes evening preparation, it is residential. To obtain maximum benefit from the course, participants are required to devote their full attention and time to course activities.
Participants are required to use equipment or materials brought with them, which will be used for their coaching session. They need to do no other preparation and resource materials will be provided.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course participants will be able to:
1. Distinguish between education, training and learning.
2. Describe the four stages in Systematic Approach to Training.
3. Review the role of a trainer within Systematic Approach to Training.
4. Apply the concept of Learning Unit to training activities.
5. Write training objectives.
6. Plan training activities, using the four ways of learning.
7. Explain the process and importance of feedback in training.
8. Describe the use of the coaching method in helping people to learn.
9. Plan and implement a coaching session for a practical task.
10. Assess coaching.
11. Describe the use of the lecture method in helping people to learn.
12. Describe the steps required to plan a lecture.
13. Prepare and deliver a lecture.
14. Describe the use and benefits of visual aids.
15. Devise visual aids.
16. Assess a lecture.
17. Describe the use of discussions in helping people to learn.
18. Describe the influence of various behaviours during a discussion.
19. Describe the importance of questions in a discussion.
20. Lead a discussion.
21. Assess a discussion session.
22. Describe how group exercises can be used to help people learn
23. Plan and run a group exercise
24. Plan acquisition of evidence of competence for Certification purposes.
ASSESSMENT
The priority during the course is to help participants to develop their instructional skills. Assessment is therefore concerned with informal feedback and advice to individual participants.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT
The course is an essential foundation for the professional development of trainers. Other courses are available covering the Design of Training (DoT) and the Management of Training (MoT). Details can be obtained from DoPT, Training Division, GOI, or from Regional Training Centres.
SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO TRAINING
An inevitable consequence of change is the need to learn. Changes may be the result of the introduction of new technology, changes in policy, new working practices, or redesigning organisations. We can show these changes graphically, below in Figure 1.
Such changes often require people to learn new knowledge and skills, and accompany this with changes in attitudes. Also, people often have to unlearn redundant knowledge, skills and make consequential modification in attitude that is inappropriate to the changed working environment. This might be an unnerving experience for people accustomed to established practices learned over a working life.
Factors to consider when dealing with 'change' in relation to work include:
The kind of change(s) being introduced
The demands these change(s) will make on people's performance
The precise details of the knowledge, skills and attitudes people will need to learn to enable them to cope with change(s)
The time needed for people to learn
The cost consequences of people failing to learn
The list uses the term 'learning', but not 'training'. Both are often used without any clear distinction being made between. Is there any difference between 'training' people, and helping them 'learn'?
DEFINITION OF LEARNING
The Oxford English Dictionary defines 'to learn' as:
a) 'Get knowledge or skill, or ability to do by study, experience or being taught'
b) 'Commit to memory'
c) ‘Become aware of information, or from observation'
d) 'Receive instruction, get knowledge or skill, become informed'
It is observed normally that young men, particularly teenagers, have a tendency to board running buses or trains. They do not desist from this practice even when warned by the elders. However, when one slips and falls and sustains injury, he afterwards thinks twice before again indulging in this adventure. His friends who see him at close quarters undergoing this painful experience also tend to desist from this act. Thus some learn from their own experiences, while others learn from others. Learning, that is doing something differently, is often a painful and difficult process.
Learning can be based on formal study, or on everyday experiences at home or at work. The accumulation of these experiences enables us to carry out certain activities or tasks. So what is the difference between 'learning' and 'training'? Let us return to the example of boarding a running bus or train.
COMPARING 'LEARNING' TO 'TRAINING'
The reason for getting injured while boarding a running bus or train was that in some way you made a mistake. You injured yourself, learning by chance as a consequence of getting into a moving bus or train. Sometimes learning takes place without necessarily being planned.
Training is different. It is done for a specific purpose; it is concerned with helping someone to learn quickly and effectively. Training requires a clearly defined outcome for example, imparting training to the personnel deployed for VIP security - how to get into a moving vehicle. It also requires that we provide effective learning conditions - for example, the task is demonstrated ,an explanation is given of how it should be done and the standard of performance required. The trainee is given an opportunity to practice under supervision.
DEFINITION OF TRAINING
We call learning directed towards a specified performance 'training'. Training is defined in the Glossary of Training Terms as:
"A planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose in the work situation, is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy current and future manpower needs of the organisation"
The distinction between 'learning' and 'training' is that learning refers to a naturally occurring process that may, or may not, contribute to a person's job performance. Training is a planned process that directs learning towards achieving specific outcomes, leading to achieving performance objectives. The Systematic Approach to Training infers that training and therefore learning, is done in a planned, systematic way, and that it is directed towards improving job performance.
REASONS FOR TRAINING
Why bother about 'training'? Why not rely on people simply learning for themselves? Here are some reasons why training is to be preferred to a naturally occurring learning process:
* People may never learn how to perform the task properly
* If they do learn, they will do so much more slowly without training
* They are likely to learn a way that is wrong
* Consequences of poor performance results in poor quality, customer complaints, etc.
* Once they learn wrongly it is very difficult to 'unlearn' and then relearn correctly
The final reason for training is the high hidden costs to the organisation. Diminishing profits, customer complaints, failure to complete projects and errors in communication can be everyday occurrence in an organisation. Often we can attribute them to a lack of training, which are also likely to have non-training implications.
The distinction is important for organisations because learning is a critical factor for success. However, if the organisation relies solely on the naturally occurring process of learning, it may never achieve success, because such learning may take too long, or be wrongly directed. This is where training becomes more appropriate; it is a systematic process directed at improving performance through organised learning.
The previous paragraphs suggest that learning will occur as a natural phenomenon and that people can therefore learn how to do their jobs without necessarily receiving the benefit of organised learning ie training. So why should an organisation bother training its employees and officials? Some organisations do not ask the question and simply do training as an act of faith or to comply with legislation. Other organisations give some of the following benefits and examples of the returns that we can expect from an investment of in systematic training:
More rapid development to full job / duties / performance
Increased output
Improved quality
Less waste of time, materials, people, equipment and money
Better use of personnel
Fewer accidents, breakdowns or errors
Reduced costs
Better identification of employee potential
Boost morale
Low productivity, poor quality of services, ineffective service, high costs and low employee morale are typical problems encountered by organisations. We might resolve some of these problems if people learned how to do their jobs or duties better in other words, were trained in a systematic way.
A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO TRAINING
We have described the possible benefits of training generally. Line management has, however, to contend with many problems every day, and training is only one option they may choose to use to solve these problems. Instead of the training option they could choose to send for work study experts, or systems analysts, or they might invest in new plant and machinery, or they may hire newly fully trained staff. The training option and the four steps in the systematic approach to training must be closely associated with real and not imaginary performance problems. Fig. 2, below, illustrates the relationship.
We can recall this concept through the following acronym:
N - Need
D - Design
I - Implement
A - Assess
IDENTIFY TRAINING NEEDS:
Improving performance or overcoming performance problems may occur in organisations, departmental, or with individuals. The first stage of the Systematic Approach Training is therefore to use various types of analysis to identify, as precisely as possible, the nature of the problems as precisely as possible. Techniques used for identifying training needs range from the general to the specific:
a) Organisational Training Needs Analysis is used to consider such questions as policy, productivity, new technology and cost escalation. Rarely can these issues be dealt with in isolation. Producing a broad picture of where problems exist is necessary and the contribution that training can make to overcoming them, with any other action required to solve or reduce performance problems.
b) Job Analysis takes the analytical process a stage further by investigating in more detail the jobs people do. This will provide information, for example, about tasks they perform, areas of responsibilities and relationships with others. Other disciplines also use job analysis (e.g. job evaluation, and recruitment and selection), when it is used to identify training needs it directs attention to the competences require to do the job.
c) Task Analysis investigates the procedures, knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to ensure satisfactory performance of a job's key tasks. The products of this analysis provide the basis for training activities.
For systematic training to be effective in meeting performance problems, it is essential that all three types of analysis, as illustrated below in Fig. 3, are either done, or considered. Using them with a degree of discretion is equally important, recognising the contribution each can make, but balancing this against the time and costs incurred.
PLAN AND DESIGN TRAINING
Once we have identified the full extent of the area for improving performance, and have identified training needs, we can plan and design appropriate training. Some problems and needs may fall within existing training provision and can easily we attended to, others require special attention.
This stage in the systematic approach is therefore concerned with planning the best use of available training resources, and the design of a wide range of training activities. These have to be planned within constraints such as budgets, operational demands, facilities, availability of personnel and so on.
A training interventions takes account of the full extent of training that will be needed to help people to improve their performance. We can plan these for groups or for individuals, and they can vary in duration from a few days to a year or more. All training interventions should have one feature in common, which is that they have not been completed until training needs have been attended to and satisfactory performance has been attained.
In training interventions two words are interchangeably used - training courses and training programmes. Unfortunately, training is often, equated to courses. Courses are often principal features of a training programme, but differ in the following ways:
They are usually for people with similar but not identical training needs
They are usually general and are not necessarily related to specific performance problems, or job tasks
They have a fixed time span within which people can learn.
A training programme often includes courses but, by themselves, courses rarely attend in full to training needs. A complete training programme may include on the job training, distance learning, computer-based training, etc., besides courses. Designing training refers to the application of appropriate training technology to devise learning opportunities within the context of a training programme.
IMPLEMENT TRAINING
Within the systematic approach to training, this is the stage where people undertake learning activities. This requires the active, wholehearted participation of the trainee, supported by skilled instruction. The degree to which the trainee is willing to participate in training activities depends on such factors as whether:
The trainee recognises the need for training
The trainee is sufficiently motivated to want to learn
During implementation this motivation is maintained or increased
The design of learning events is realistic within the context of the organisation
Clearly defined objectives are used to direct learning activities
The trainers possess sufficient technical and instructional skills
Personnel in the organisation who are associated with the training activities, (management, supervisors and colleagues) support the application and development of newly acquired knowledge, skills and attitudes.
The success of the implementation stage relies on these and many other factors. It is the often fragile process by which learning is organised and the means by which performance problems are resolved.
ASSESS RESULTS
Training is only as good as the results it achieves and the benefits derived from it by individuals and their organisations. The fourth and final stage is therefore to assess and evaluate the results obtained from training activities. The success or failure of this may depend upon the terms of reference and data being used for measurement, and the extent to which this is common to the people involved trainers, trainees, line management, general management, government training agencies, etc.
Assessment needs to answer three basic questions:
1. Did the training achieve what it tried to achieve?
2. Did the training improve performance or solve the problem?
3. Was the training worthwhile?
THE LEARNING UNIT
Earlier, the benefits of training and the reasons why it is done were discussed . A distinction was made between 'learning' and 'training'. Let us consider the latter term for a moment. Training is essentially organised learning and as trainers we are given the responsibility and resources to organise it. The Glossary of Training Terms defines learning as:
"The process whereby individuals acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes through experience, reflection, study or instruction".
The definition raises several questions that should concern us as trainers. For example, it refers to Individuals. Trainers are often dealing with not just one individual but maybe 10 or 100. Although the learning process refers to learning for the individual, we as trainers are normally face the practicalities of dealing with the learning process of not just one person but several. However, remembering that it is individuals who learn is important, and that they do not all learn in the same way or at the same rate.
The competence of an individual to perform a task is determined by their ability to use an appropriate combination of knowledge, skill and attitude. We can call this combination Behaviour.
* Knowledge - information required to perform a task or duty
* Skill - the physical and mental abilities required actual performance of the task or duty
* Attitude - the willingness and diligence of the person to comply with procedures, regulations and standards.
The competence of a person to perform a task is therefore determined by using an appropriate combination of knowledge, skill and attitude. We can call this combination Behaviour
The reason for raising these issues is to draw attention to the many and often complex factors that will influence our ability to organise learning and provide effective and efficient training service. The Learning Unit that we will now introduce and describe provides a means of taking account of these factors within a framework that can be used for the design and implementation of training activities.
DESCRIBING A LEARNING UNIT
For training purposes learning is associated with the ability of a trainee, to perform a task. Analogy can illustrate the idea of the Learning Unit. In Fig. 4, below, a box B represents the learning unit
We show a trainee at A before entering the box and at C after leaving it. From the sketch the result of going through the box has evidently been to produce a change in the trainee, who emerges from the box slimmer. Similarly, a Learning Unit should produce a change, a change that will result in the trainee being able to do something he or she could not do before going through the Learning Unit. In other words, there has been a 'change in behaviour.'
Returning to Fig. 4, let us consider further the process of going from A through B to C.
REFERRING TO ‘A’
The trainee's performance needs to change. It is not enough for the trainee's superior and other colleagues to recognise this: the trainee also needs to recognise the need to change. More specifically, before training takes place, it is important that:
The trainee should know he or she has a training need to perform a specific task.
A standard of performance is available to define what the trainee should be able to do.
Finally, and most important, the trainee must want to change to acquire new knowledge, skills or attitudes to enable the task to be performed to the required standard
REFERRING TO ‘B’
We organise the learning event to solve the trainee's performance problem. The intention is that the trainee will leave the learning event having acquired the necessary change in behaviour. If it is to be successful, it must:
Be able to do what it purports to do change a trainee's behaviour.
Treat all trainee's participating in the learning event as individuals: we must take differences in their knowledge, skills and attitudes into account.
Provide sufficient time for each individual to achieve success.
Create a learning environment that is pleasant, well organised, free from anxiety and where the trainee will be willing to participate in learning activities designed to bring about the required change(s) in behaviour at work.
REFERRING TO ‘C’
The trainee has now left the learning event having completed the process of change. It is important that we assess the product of this change; assessed that is, by the organisation who has paid for the training; by the trainer who designed the learning event and helped the trainee during the learning process; and, finally, and all too frequently forgotten, assessed by the trainee who had to undergo the change.
So, the product of the learning process has to be assessed by:
Determining whether the trainee has acquired the proposed knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Determining whether the trainee is now able to perform the task.
Asking the trainee to comment on the value of the newly acquired expertise in relation to performance of the task and to his or her job in general.
To summarise, in relation to the Learning Unit:
* There is a purpose in undergoing training. We shall call this the 'OBJECTIVE'.
* The trainee has certain capabilities that need to be taken into account. We shall call these capabilities the trainee's 'ENTRY BEHAVIOUR'.
* Learning activities have to be provided to cause change. We shall call this process of change the 'LEARNING EVENT'.
* We need to measure in some way whether the objective has been achieved. We shall call this 'PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT'.
MODEL OF A LEARNING UNIT
The model shown above in Fig. 5 has four principal stages. These stages are arranged in a circular format to show that they are interrelated. The model's circular format is also used to suggest that the starting point for the Learning Unit may vary. For example:
We have established a clear purpose (e.g. the need to learn how to perform a task) and been expressed as an objective. The starting point for developing the Learning Unit is therefore the OBJECTIVE.
There is a trainee or a group of trainees to train. The starting point for developing the Learning Unit would be to consider their present capabilities, the task they have to learn, and to plan the rest of the Unit accordingly. In other words, the starting point would be ENTRY BEHAVIOUR.
Restrictions on training resources might force the trainer to consider the LEARNING EVENT first, simply because it will influence the objective that can realistically be set, and the number of trainees that we can accept.
Management might state quite specifically how they intend to assess performance of the task. The Learning Unit would therefore have to be developed from the starting point of PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT.
The Model of the Learning Unit shows it as having four principal stages. However, knowledge of results, and feedback generally, is an essential feature of the learning process. This knowledge is required by both the trainees and the trainers:
* Trainees can get information about their progress
* Trainers can learn about the effectiveness and the efficiency of the Learning Unit they have designed and implemented.
The following questions are typical examples of ones a trainer might ask to obtain feedback:
OBJECTIVES
Is the objective expressed in terms of knowledge skills and attitude?
Does the objective contain a clear, unambiguous description of performance?
Is the performance described in the objective directly related to the task?
Is the objective based on thorough analysis?
Does the objective include details of the conditions under which the performance is to be carried out?
Are the conditions based on the real work situation?
Does the objective include a standard of performance to be achieved?
Are there measurable standards of performance?
Who, ultimately, decides whether the objective has been achieved?
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR
How many trainees are there to consider?
What is their geographical location?
Is the Learning Unit likely to make great demands on them?
Does their ability or experience vary considerably?
What is the age range?
What is their accustomed learning style?
Are they undertaking the learning willingly?
To what extent is attitude a factor in the learning?
Are they likely to be worried about the consequences of failing to achieve the objective?
LEARNING EVENT
Does the learning event reflect, or simulate, the real work situation?
Does the learning event accommodate trainees with differing entry behaviours?
Is the learning event trainee centred or trainer centred?
Does the learning event allow the pace of learning to be set to suit the trainee?
To what extent will the learning event expose the trainee to stress and anxiety?
Does the learning event provide sufficient time for practice?
Is there provision for remedial training where needed?
How competent is the trainer in relation to the learning event?
What other resources are needed to support the learning event?
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
Is there a formal, explicit, assessment of performance?
Who has final responsibility for assessing performance?
Does the assessment truly reflect performance under normal working conditions?
Is the assessment based on objective measuring techniques?
What are the consequences of failure for the trainee and trainer?
To what extent are the views of the trainees taken into account in relation to the usefulness of the performance they have achieved?
We can rephrase this far from exhaustive list of questions so that they form a checklist of questions to be considered before the Learning Unit is implemented. They can also form a checklist to be used as the basis for reflection after it is completed. We can account of successes and failures, and changes to improve the Learning Unit for further use.
FOUR WAYS OF LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of training is to help people to develop their knowledge, skills and attitudes to enable them to carry out their duties. This requires the trainer to consider such questions as:
What is the objective of the training being planned? Is it to develop knowledge? To develop skills? To develop attitudes? Or (more usually) to develop a mixture of these?
What is the entry behaviour of the trainees? What transferable skills do they already possess? Are they willing to learn?
Is the entry behaviour likely to vary within the learning group? If so, how wide is the range?
Do the trainees prefer to work things out for themselves?
What is the environment for the learning event? Will it take place under working conditions, or off the job?
What methods will be used to give trainees feedback on their performance?
In considering these questions, an important underlying consideration is the way in which people learn. The following notes describe a basic, practical framework for applying learning theories to typical training situations. It considers four of the ways in which people learn:
1. TRIAL AND ERROR by trying for oneself
2. BEING TOLD by receiving direct instruction, either orally, or in writing
3. IMITATION by copying the actions of another person, usually an instructor or a skilled person
4. THINKING by organising one's thoughts about a topic or problem to arrive at an explanation or solution.
Each of these ways can make a useful contribution to a learning event. Depending on the objectives to be achieved and the trainee's entry behaviour, for some training sessions one or two of the ways of learning will are more useful than others. You may find the illustration in Fig. 1, below, helpful.
Notice that the learning event illustrated show that ‘thinking’ and ‘trial and error’ are used more than the other two ways of learning. This is a learning event suitable for tasks where people have to learn how to solve problems, deal with non-routine situations or involving planning.
Learning events can be planned by considering how each of the four ways of learning can contribute to the quality and effectiveness of training you can provide for the trainees. Each axis should be considered to decide which of the ways will be of most benefit to the trainee, the extent of the contribution, and the sequence in which they are to be used.
TRIAL AND ERROR
This is probably the simplest and most traditional form of learning. Trainees try to do something and learning takes place when they review the success or failure of their attempt. Trial and Error learning is essentially a practical activity and is therefore particularly suitable for learning skills.
Trainees often like to learn by trial and error by attempting to do something. This is especially true when the trainee feels confident and able to participate in what will usually be practical, work related situations.
Generally, younger people like to try for themselves because learning activities are often introducing something new, challenging and of practical work related significance. Older people like to learn by trial and error because they can build upon their existing skills and to use their experience as the basis for learning.
One of the most important features of trial and error learning is knowledge of results. When a trainee tries to do something, the attempt has to be reinforced. Sometimes the information comes from the performance of the task itself. For example, if you try to light a match, you can see for yourself whether or not you have been successful. For other tasks, the trainee may need to get information from the trainer, either by praise, confirming that the attempt was correct (positive reinforcement), and only occasionally criticism for making an incorrect attempt (negative reinforcement). This means that:
a) We should so design Trial and error learning situations that the trainee has a good chance of making successful attempts, leading to positive reinforcement.
b) Learning events leading to probable failure should usually be avoided. Errors lead to a lowering of confidence and a reluctance to attempt further trial and error learning activities.
c) An exception to (b) above is when a failure attempt is used as the basis for further learning, allowing the trainee to reflect upon what went wrong (see 'Thinking').
d) The trainee should feel a sense of security. He or she should feel confident that if the attempt results in failure, it will lead to nothing other than friendly advice.
We should create opportunities for practising trial and error learning around practical, realistic, activities. The learning opportunities should be events structured rather than unstructured. Structured learning events are those that the trainer has carefully planned, where the trainee is learning in a cumulative way with each attempt leading to probable success and to further even more demanding learning opportunities.
An unstructured trial and error learning event is one for which the trainer has made no plans. The trainee attempts to do something without proper supervision, and without knowing the likely outcome of the attempt. The result of such an unstructured learning event is likely to be failure, with the trainee becoming demotivated through loss of self confidence, and loss of respect for the trainer.
When properly planned, learning by trial and error can make a valuable contribution to training activities and is particularly useful for practical on the job training.
BEING TOLD
The basis of this way of learning is that the trainee receives some information from the trainer. The instruction can be in words, symbols, or figures. The entire content of what has to be learned is presented to the trainee in a final form. The task of learning does not require the trainee to make any independent discovery. When we tell a trainee something he or she is being presented with a fleeting moment in which to understand and remember the information. How fleeting the moment and how much the trainee learns depends upon:
a) The amount of information to be remembered: if it is only a small amount the trainee can simply be told and be expected to remember. However, if there is a considerable amount of information, expecting a trainee to remember it is unreasonable. The information should therefore be presented in written form to enable the trainee to refer
to it when necessary.
b) The complexity of the information: the more complex the information the more carefully the trainer needs to consider how to present it. We can often improve this presentation if it is supported by visual aids.
Being told something is not always an easy activity for either the trainee or the trainer. First it requires the ability and willingness of the trainee to listen carefully and learn. Younger people find this easier to do than adults who may resent this essentially prescriptive approach to learning.
The relationship between the trainer and the trainee is another factor. 'Being Told' infers that the trainee does not know and the trainer does. In practical terms, this means that:
a) The trainee has almost no information on the subject; must want to learn the information; and accepts the trainer as a provider of it.
b) The trainer must know the information, can communicate it effectively, and be credible
to the trainee.
c) We must create an instructional session that gives the trainee the opportunity to learn. This requires preparation, effective presentation, and a sufficient amount of time for learning to take place.
Being told is a useful way to learn, especially when used for increasing knowledge. This is particularly so for situations where there is a clear cut body of knowledge with a minimum amount of ambiguity. The effectiveness of this way of learning depends largely upon the ability of the trainer to prepare and communicate the information.
IMITATION
In learning by imitation, we create an opportunity in which a trainee can observe somebody performing a task. The trainee then attempts to imitate the performance he or she has observed. Essentially, learning by imitation is based upon what a trainee sees done, not on what we tell him or her should be done.
A 'model' which a trainee can imitate should be a positive influence because it should be a demonstration of the correct way to do something. It can become a negative influence if the trainee sees and imitates incorrect ways of doing something. In both cases, it is what the trainee sees being done that matters most and influences behaviour.
Learning by imitation is an aspect of the learning process that requires very careful consideration by the trainer. For example, there might be a considerable difference between what a trainee has learned in, say, an off the job training centre, and what is seen being done on the job. The question then is, which 'model' was the correct one the one seen in the training centre, or the one seen on the job? Almost certainly the trainee will imitate the on the job model because of pressure to conform to group norms. The overpowering influence of the group will affect the trainee's behaviour; the trainee will almost certainly conform to workplace norms, despite any off the job training he or she might have received.
On the job training can provide an excellent basis for learning by imitation. However, if on the job training is badly prepared and unstructured, the trainee will be exposed to (and learn) probably as many bad working practices as good ones. The trainer should consider the following points:
a) A good 'model performance' should be available so that the trainee can imitate it.
b) The learning event should permit accurate and complete observation by the trainee. This is sometimes difficult in that not everything in the performance will be observable. The information the skilled worker takes in through the senses and uses for skilled performance may not be immediately apparent. This is an important reason for not relying solely on imitation: to do so may lead the trainee to acquire the wrong behaviour.
c) As far as possible, we should not expose trainees to bad models. If we cannot avoid this, then we must try to positively reinforce good behaviour, and to highlight the consequences of bad behaviour. (See Thinking).
d) Trying to change the work behaviour of one member of a group is almost bound to end in failure. Training the whole group together is usually far more effective.
THINKING
Learning can occur when a trainee is encouraged to think about an experience and to reflect on it in learning terms. Using such questions as 'Why do you think that happened?' 'What would you do if you were to repeat it?’, the trainer can create a learning event within which complex situations can be thought about and discussed. It might be that there is not a simple, clear cut, answer; the trainee might be presented with several options, each having some advantages to offer. Learning can take place when the trainee has to evaluate the options, draw conclusions, consider consequences, and generally 'think through' the situation.
In many practical, work related, situations, particularly ones facing managers, technicians, and supervisors, there is not a simple solution. The learning event created for such situations must reflect and take account of the complexity of the situation, and the varied experiences, and opinions held by trainees on the subject. In such circumstances the trainer has to encourage consideration of each situation; the reasons why it occurred and the consequences of pursuing a particular course of action. The fact that there is not necessarily one simple solution may need to be stressed. Each trainee may have his or her own interpretation of the situation and a valuable learning experience can occur when this interpretation is challenged and evaluated alongside those of other trainees.
Learning by thinking is a valuable way of providing a learning experience. Some factors to be taken into account include:
a) The maturity and experience of the trainees, compared with the thinking required. What is a complex, demanding, thinking experience for one trainee, becomes a simple situation all too easily resolved by another.
b) The trainer should adopt an advisory, counselling role. You must encourage trainee centred learning and avoid imposing personal solutions to the problems posed by the situation.
c) The more complex the situation, the less likely it is for there to be a simple, definitive, answer. A trainee, having struggled through to a possible solution, is likely to feel committed to that solution and claim 'ownership' of it. In that situation he or she will look for and expect support, critical appraisal, and, generally, positive reinforcement.
d) Thinking is a very personal activity and the time needed to reach a solution to a problem will vary considerably within a group of trainees. This means that we should allow sufficient time within the learning event for each trainee to gain full benefit from the learning experience. Any attempt by the trainer to rush this kind of learning process will almost certainly result in a degree of learning failure.
e) If there is a straightforward, definitive, solution to a problem it is usually far more appropriate simply to tell the trainees.
Thinking can be a valuable and rewarding learning experience. It provides an excellent basis for learning about complex situations.
The role of the trainer is one of establishing the conditions for learning to take place and then being available to act as coach and counsellor: it is not to tell the trainees what they should be thinking. This does not mean adopting a passive role: far from it. It means that the trainer comments; asks for clarification; puts questions that force the trainees to think more deeply about the subject by considering the implications of what they are saying; and gives more information where there are gaps in the trainees knowledge and experience.
ROLE OF THE DIRECT TRAINER
DTS-4
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of using the Systematic Approach to Training is to improve performance. Many people contribute to this process managers, officers, supervisors, technical specialists, training advisers and, lastly, but most important, direct trainers - the people who undertake instructional duties. They include:
Full time trainers or instructors, often working in training centres
People with specialist expertise who act as 'occasional' or 'guest' trainers
Departmental personnel who act as 'on job trainers'
A variety of people may therefore be required to undertake instructional duties. By doing so they make a significant contribution to the success of training activities. Their role is primarily concerned with implementing training. This requires them to use appropriate training methods and instructional skills to help people learn. These may include, for example:
Conducting training sessions 'on' or 'off' the job
Coaching individual trainees or members of staff
Delivering lectures, or leading discussions as part of a training session
Using less traditional, learner centred training methods such as group exercises, case studies, role plays, etc.
Using existing instructional material, or material supplied from a central resource
Helping individuals or groups with their performance problems
The phrase 'Helping People to Learn' has been used to emphasise that an important part of the role of the trainer is to organise opportunities for people to learn. Another equally important part is to ensure that their learning is directed towards helping them to achieve a specified standard of performance. This is what makes the difference between informal learning and organised training. This is important because an organisation can only be expected to invest in training activities if there is evidence that they produce improved performance.
Although within the context of systematic training the instructional role is mainly concerned with the implementation stage, you should be aware of the other stages and their effect on your instructional activities. For example:
Who is responsible for identifying training needs?
Who is responsible for ensuring that trainees attending a course have clearly identified training needs, and that these are relevant to the course objectives?
Who is responsible for the overall planning and design of courses and other training activities?
Who is responsible for validating training to ensure it results in improved performance?
Who is responsible for deciding how best to deploy and develop trainer resources, now and in the future?
These are broad questions, focusing on the issue of responsibility. The easy answer is to say that it is the responsibility of 'training management', but really it is the responsibility of everybody who contributes to systematic training. When undertaking instructional duties, in whatever capacity, you should ask questions based on the ones given above. Failure to ask them, or to consider the underlying issues, may result in your having to deal with people who have no clearly defined training needs; working on courses that have no overall plan or objectives; and having no, or unsuitable training resources to enable you to provide effective instruction.
SUMMARY
The four stages of the systematic approach to training provide a framework for effective training that is closely related to actual performance problems. For the trainer, undertaking instructional duties, they provide the following:
Identifying Training Needs
This is an essential component of systematic training. It is the link between the instruction you are providing and the performance problems of your trainees. The more thorough the analysis of performance problems and associated training needs, the easier it will be to provide training activities suited to their needs.
Ideally, as a result of training needs analysis, you will be given information about specific tasks your trainees are required to perform. Alternatively, you may be given a specification of the knowledge they need to do their job. If you are not given either of these result may be ineffective training.
Planning and Designing
If you are newly appointed to instructional duties, you are dependent on other, more experienced trainers to provide you with the design and resources for training sessions. As you gain experience and instructional skills, it becomes an additional responsibility to design courses and training sessions, and to develop resource materials for use by other trainers.
You may find it useful to apply the discipline of the Learning Unit to the preparation of training sessions. This can be done independently, or in consultation with colleagues. You should clarify objectives for the session, adjust the learning event to suit the trainee’s entry behaviour, and have agreed methods of assessment.
Implement Training
This is your domain, where you interact with your trainees to provide them with opportunities to learn. They will be dependent on you to give them ways in which they can achieve the objective. Are you going to make the learning event practical, work related and interesting using all the four ways of learning?
The imaginative choice of training methods, careful preparation and skilful instruction will help your trainees improve their performance and in the process give you a great deal of personal satisfaction.
Assess Results
The intention of training activities is to help people and organisations with their performance problems. Intentions cannot be measured, but results can. The final part of systematic training is therefore to use suitable measuring techniques to assess:
a) The quality of training you provided
b) Whether this resulted in improved performance
c) Whether the training was worth doing
Of these three areas of assessment, you should be particularly concerned with the first as the information it provides will enable you to improve your instruction.
WRITING TRAINING OBJECTIVES
DTS-5
THE SEA HORSE SAGA
Once upon a time a Sea Horse gathered up his seven pieces of eight and cantered out to find his fortune. Before he had travelled very far he met an Eel, who said.
"Psst. Hey, bud. Where 'ya goin'?"
"I'm going out to find my fortune", replied the Sea Horse, proudly.
"You're in luck", said the Eel. "For four pieces of eight you can have this speedy flipper, and then you'll be able to get there a lot faster".
"Gee, that's swell". said the Sea Horse, and paid the money and put on the flipper and slithered off at twice the speed. Soon he came upon a Sponge, who said,
"Psst. Hey, bud. Where 'ya goin?"
"I'm going out to find my fortune", replied the Sea Horse.
"You're in luck", said the Sponge. "For a small fee I will let you have this jet propelled scooter so that you will be able to travel a lot faster."
So the Sea Horse bought the scooter with his remaining money and went zooming through the sea five times as fast. Soon he came upon a Shark, who said,
"Psst. Hey, bud. Where 'ya goin?"
"I'm going out to find my fortune," replied the Sea Horse.
"You're in luck. If you'll take this short cut," said the Shark, pointing to his open mouth, "you'll save yourself a lot of time."
"Gee, thanks," said the Sea Horse, and zoomed off into the interior of the Shark, there to be devoured.
The moral of this fable is that if you're not sure where you're going, you're liable to end up someplace else and not even know it.
Preparing Instructional Objectives.
Robert Mager
Fearon Publishers.
INTRODUCTION
As Robert Mager so colourfully illustrates in the Sea Horse Saga, if you as the trainer do not know where you are going, there is little chance of the learner knowing either. Neither you nor your trainee will finish up in a shark's mouth, but you will almost certainly have wasted your time, your trainees' time and probably a considerable amount of your employer's money.
The key question to ask is this: "What kind of things should your trainee be able to do at the end of the training session?"
Unless you have a clear, unambiguous answer both you and your learner will act like the Sea Horse.
Actually, as you read this, you are not really a trainer but a trainee and it is therefore up to me as your trainer to explain the purpose of this booklet and tell you what you should be able to do after completing it. Let us use the Learning Unit for this purpose.
LEARNING UNIT
Purpose of Unit
Trainers are frequently required to write training objectives. These should be clear, precise and unambiguous statements that both trainers and trainees can use. The aim of this learning unit is to give you an opportunity to learn how to recognise good objectives and to write them in performance terms.
Objective
At the end of this learning unit you will be able to distinguish between well written and poorly written objectives. You will also be able to write objectives in performance terms.
Entry Behaviour
The sad saga of the Sea Horse and your trainer's introduction to the benefits of using training objectives has, I trust, convinced you of the value of successfully completing this learning unit.
However, you might respond by saying you can already write training objectives. Fine! Therefore, there is no need to work through the Learning Event, just try the Performance Assessment to confirm your ability.
Learning Event
This is provided by means of a programmed text that starts on the next page. Your trainer is also available to help you overcome any difficulties you may experience. Don't hesitate to ask for assistance.
Performance Assessment
On completion of the Learning Event you will find a short test. Please complete this.
On the page following the test you will find comments about each question. Consider these in relation to your answers and discuss any doubts you may have with your trainer.
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMED LEARNING
This learning event is in the form of a programmed learning text; which means that while you are reading it we will ask you some questions.
You should write down the answer to each question on a separate sheet of paper before you turn to the next page.
The answer to each question is on the following page, so that you can check whether or not you were right. If you get a wrong answer or cannot answer a question, you should go back and reread the question.
Sometimes we will give you a choice of possible answers. When you have decided which you think is the right answer, you should turn to the appropriate page, which we will suggest.
Work through the programme carefully and at your own pace. There is a time limit of 30 minutes. If you need assistance, call the trainer.
GO TO THE NEXT PAGE
You have read on Page 4 that one characteristic of programmed learning texts is that you will answer questions and then be informed whether or not you are correct. Also, at the end of a programme there is a test to see how much you have learned.
QUESTION:
What is the subject of this programmed learning text?
w____________ t____________ o__________
WRITE YOUR ANSWER ON A SEPARATE SHEET OF PAPER AND GO TO THE NEXT PAGE
ANSWER :
writing training objectives
Anyone who is involved in imparting instructions during training should set out with a TRAINING OBJECTIVE. By not setting an objective, training can be vague and not to the point.
Nevertheless, this is not all. As a trainer you want your trainees to be able to achieve the performance stated in the training objective.
QUESTION :
As a trainer you want your trainees to
a ___________ the training objective.
WRITE DOWN THE MISSING WORD ON YOUR SHEET OF PAPER AND GO TO THE NEXT PAGE
ANSWER :
achieve the training objective.
There is no point in a trainer setting a training objective unless he follows it up to see whether the objective has been achieved.
QUESTION :
All training is concerned with achieving performance:
so the o___________ of training is to achieve a clearly defined p_________________.
WRITE DOWN THE MISSING WORDS ON YOUR SHEET OF PAPER AND GO TO THE NEXT PAGE
ANSWER :
The objective of training is to achieve a clearly defined performance
When an objective is stated, it is reasonable to state it in terms of performance.
QUESTION :
In other words, the training objective tells us what the trainee will be able to do________ at the end of the learning unit
WRITE DOWN THE MISSING WORD ON YOUR SHEET OF PAPER AND GO TO THE NEXT PAGE
ANSWER :
The trainee will be able to do at the end of the learning unit.
A training objective should contain a statement of performance that includes an action (e.g. list, write, drill, type, interview, etc.) A question to ask about a statement of performance is whether we can observe or measure it. If not, it is almost certainly too vague and should be improved by including an action word one that can be observed or measured.
QUESTION:
Which of the following statements is written in performance terms?
(a) The trainee will be able to appreciate the meaning of training objectives *
(b) The trainee will be able to write training objectives.....**
* GO TO PAGE 10 IF YOU BELIEVE THIS IS WRITTEN IN PERFORMANCE TERMS
** GO TO PAGE 11 IF YOU BELIEVE THIS IS WRITTEN IN PERFORMANCE TERMS
You say that:
'The trainee will be able to appreciate the meaning of training objectives'
Although this is apparently written in performance terms, it does not say what the trainee will actually be able to do at the end of the training. Also it does not contain an action.
For example appreciating how a computer operates does not necessarily mean that you can handle or operate a computer.
A PERFORMANCE STATEMENT ALWAYS STATES WHAT THE PERSON MUST BE ABLE TO DO AT THE END OF A LEARNING UNIT.
GO BACK TO PAGE 9, AND READ THE PAGE AGAIN, AND CALL THE TRAINER IF YOU STILL THINK (a) IS THE ANSWER.
ANSWER:
'The trainee will be able to write training objectives'
This training objective is written in performance terms, because it says what the trainee will
be able to do at the end of the learning unit (i.e. write)
QUESTION:
Try these two options:
(a) The trainee will be able to understand how to prepare a T.A. Bill........*
(b) The trainee will be able to prepare a T.A. Bill.....**
* GO TO PAGE 12 IF YOU BELIEVE THIS IS WRITTEN IN PERFORMANCE TERMS
** GO TO PAGE 13 IF YOU BELIEVE THIS IS WRITTEN IN PERFORMANCE TERMS
If the trainee understands how to prepare a T.A. Bill will he or she actually be able to select
a correct form and prepare a T.A. Bill? Notice the difference between:
* able to understand theory
* able to prepare practice
There is a big difference between the theory and practice of preparing a T.A. Bill..
GO BACK TO PAGE 11, READ THE PAGE AGAIN, AND TRY THE OTHER OPTION.
CONSULT THE TRAINER IF YOU STILL SELECT (a)
ANSWER :
'The trainee will be able to prepare a T.A. Bill'
This is a correct statement expressed in performance terms. It states what the person will be able to do after completing the learning unit the purpose of which was to learn how to prepare a T.A. Bill.
You will have realised by now that a good training objective includes performance terms that contain a specific action and not a vague one that cannot be observed or measured. Some of the vague words to be avoided are:
Understand
Comprehend
Grasp
Know
Appreciate (have an appreciation of)
Here is an example of an objective stated in non performance terms:
'The trainee will really know how to sharpen a knife.'
REWRITE THIS IN PERFORMANCE TERMS USING AN ACTION WORD ON YOUR SHEET OF PAPER AND THEN TURN TO THE NEXT PAGE
ANSWER :
You should have something like: 'The trainee will be able to sharpen a 'knife'. Notice the action word is 'sharpen'.
We have been looking at how to write the performance part of an objective. As you have seen, this means that the objective must state what the trainee will be able to do at the end of the learning unit.
QUESTION :
Here are some more examples of performance statements. Which of them are written in performance terms and include an action word?
1. The trainee will be able to really verification of Service Rules.
2. The trainee will be able to type a D.O. letter
3. The trainee will be able to understand how to give a lecture.
4. The trainee will be able to calculate percentages.
5. The trainee will be able to use a calculator.
6. The trainee will be able to grasp the principles of store purchase rules.
WRITE THE NUMBERS OF THE ONES YOU BELIEVE ARE WRITTEN IN PERFORMANCE TERMS ON YOUR SHEET OF PAPER AND THEN GO TO THE NEXT PAGE
ANSWER :
Statements (2), (4) and (5) are written in performance terms.
If you got any of these wrong, it might be a good idea to back to Page 4 and repeat the learning event.
Stating an objective in performance terms is known as stating the 'PERFORMANCE'.
QUESTION :
Is the following a good example of stating the performance?
'The trainee will be able to fully grasp the principles of interviewing'.
GO TO PAGE 16 IF YOU BELIEVE THIS IS WRITTEN IN PERFORMANCE TERMS
GO TO PAGE 17 IF YOU BELIEVE THIS IS NOT WRITTEN IN PERFORMANCE TERMS
You say that:
'The trainee will be able to fully grasp the principles of interviewing'
Unfortunately, this is not a good example of performance because 'fully grasp' is a vague term that cannot be observed or measured.
Wouldn't a better statement be "... be able to conduct an interview"? This performance can be observed.
GO BACK TO PAGE 15, READ THE PAGE AGAIN, AND TRY THE 'NO' OPTION
SEE YOUR TRAINER IF YOU HAVE ANY DIFFICULTY.
ANSWER :
'The trainee will be able to fully grasp the principles of interviewing'
This is definitely not a good example of stating performance. The performance would be better written as:
'The trainee will be able to conduct an interview.'
QUESTION :
We must be careful when writing training objectives, not to write descriptions, but to state
the actions that the trainee will be able to do in terms of ______________________
WRITE THE MISSING WORD ON YOUR SHEET OF PAPER AND GO TO THE NEXT PAGE
ANSWER:
State the action that the trainee will be able to do in terms of performance
GO TO NEXT PAGE
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
Having completed the programmed text you should now be able to recognise training objectives that include a clear statement of performance. Look at the examples below and distinguish between the ones that are well written and others that are not. Note how you would improve the ones you consider poor.
1. The trainee will be able to use the overhead projector.
2. The trainee will be able to understand Ohm's Law.
3. The trainee will be able to grasp the essentials of First Aid.
4. The trainee will be able to describe how to conduct a meeting.
5. The trainee will appreciate the benefits of using a computer in data management.
6. The trainee will be aware of the need to prepare carefully for a lecture.
7. The trainee will be able to know how to adjust the focus on an OHP
8. The trainee will be able to comprehend the two main factors influencing a discussion.
ONCE YOU HAVE COMPLETED THESE EXAMPLES, TURN OVER THE PAGE FOR COMMENTS.
1. The trainee will be able to use the overhead projector.
'Use' is an observable action and the objective therefore includes a statement of performance. It is interesting to note the action word used requires knowledge and skill and the objective cannot be achieved by means of a lecture, for example.
2. The trainee will be able to understand Ohm's Law.
A poor statement. The performance cannot be observed or measured. If the trainee says 'I understand' what can he or she actually do?
3. The trainee will be able to grasp the essentials of First Aid.
Poor. Presumably 'essentials of First Aid' refers to knowledge, how does the trainee 'grasp' it? How many essentials are there?
4. The trainee will be able to describe how to conduct a meeting.
'Describe' is a measurable action giving the objective a satisfactory statement of performance. Note, however, that although the learner can describe how to conduct a meeting, he or she cannot actually conduct it. That would require a different objective and a learning event including skills training.
5. The trainee will appreciate the benefits of using a computer in data management.
Not bad, but could be better. If you were given this objective for, say, a lecture you could reasonably expect to convince the trainee of the benefits of using a computer. However, if at the end of your lecture, the trainee said 'Yes, I appreciate the benefits', what are you going to do for assessment? If the objective has included a performance statement such as '....will be able to list 5 benefits of using a computer', then you could assess by asking the trainee to recall the list of benefits.
6. The trainee will be aware of the need to prepare carefully for a lecture.
Again, not a very good objective. It includes 'carefully' but the weakness is 'will be aware'. This is not an action statement, making the performance vague and not measurable.
7. The trainee will be able to know how to adjust the focus on an OHP.
The motto here seems to be if you're not sure about an objective add a few more words. This objective finishes up as two, one containing the statement '.... will be able to adjust the focus....', and the other '...to know how to adjust the focus...' One is measurable because you can observe the trainee adjusting the focus, the latter only requires the trainee to 'know' which is not observable or measurable.
8. The trainee will be able to comprehend the two main factors influencing a discussion.
You probably spotted that the word 'comprehend' is in the same category as 'know', making the objective a poor one. Another feature is 'two main factors'. Are there only two, or, if there are more could another trainer interpret the objective differently and give the trainees two others? Ideally, objectives should be clear, unambiguous and therefore transferable from one trainer to another.
GIVING AND RECEIVING FEEDBACK
DTS-06
INTRODUCTION
During your work as a trainer you will be involved with 'Feedback'. At times, you will be helping people to learn by giving them feedback about their performance; at other times the trainees will give you feedback. For example, during a learning event, you will give trainees feedback on their performance; you should also encourage them to give you feedback on your performance, otherwise how can you improve? On both occasions the quality of learning increases significantly if we give and receive feedback with skill, a sense of shared responsibility, and with a spirit of mutual support and benefit. Feedback is at the heart of effective learning.
WHAT IS FEEDBACK?
The "Glossary of Training Terms" defines Feedback as:
"The process by which information about the results of an action is communicated to the source of the action. It is argued, for example, that learning takes place either through the informational characteristic or the reinforcing characteristic of the knowledge of results, or through a combination of both".
An essential feature of the learning process is "the reinforcing characteristic of the knowledge of results" referred to in the definition. This gives us valuable information about our performance. If we do something and do it well, then the feedback should tell us so, giving us confidence to continue in the same manner. If, however, we have done something rather badly, it is equally important that we know, so that we can recognise the need to change. Feedback should help identify what aspects of performance needs changing and which should be maintained.
The source of feedback can be from other people as comments from other trainees, or from trainers. However, the performance of a task itself provides another source of feedback. You do not need a trainer to tell you that you have fallen off a bicycle, and you know from the taste whether you have put too much sugar in a cup of tea. The extent to which we receive feedback is a significant factor in the standard of our performance.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF FEEDBACK?
By sharing experiences and giving each other the benefit of different ideas, trainees can improve and develop many aspects of their performance. For example, on a training course, trainees will have an opportunity to try new ways of doing things free from the constraints of the workplace. What individual trainees do in the training room can be examined in detail and the consequences of certain behaviours discussed. The feedback they receive from other trainees and their trainers, can provide the basis for helping them to develop their behaviour and as a result to improve their performance. Under normal working conditions giving people feedback about their performance is usually difficult, however under training conditions it is not only possible but an essential feature of effective training.
CATEGORIES OF FEEDBACK
Feedback helps us to learn about ourselves and the effect of our behaviour on others. However, feedback is only helpful when it is accepted and used by the recipient. It can take the form of either positive or negative feedback. Positive feedback confirms and praises acceptable performance. This builds confidence and motivates the receiver to repeat the performance. Negative feedback identifies areas where performance is inadequate. It can be of great value to the recipient if it creates an awareness of the need to change. The danger with negative feedback is that the recipient may reject it.
VALUE OF FEEDBACK
Providing feedback therefore needs to be a constructive activity that should be helping trainees’ to learn. It should not be destructive and critical. Equally important, the recipient should not interpret it as destructive and critical. If receiving feedback is treated as a negative process, this reduces the trainee's confidence and ability to learn, and will interfere with the learning process.
To be effective, feedback needs to be skilfully given and the receiver must hear, understand, accept and act upon the feedback. However accurate the feedback if the trainee rejects it, the result will be no improvement in performance. Therefore, always consider the human element during feedback.
H - Hear
U - Understand
M - Motivate
A - Acceptable
N - Negotiate
The giving and receiving of feedback are skills which require very careful handling. They require courage, tact, honesty, understanding and respect both for yourself and for others. Like all other skills, they develop only through practice. In providing feedback to others you will need to be sensitive to the feedback you will receive in response. The giving of feedback cannot be separated from receiving it in return. If we give feedback based on facts, both positive and negative, then feedback will be received. However, negative feedback, based on opinion will be perceived as shallow and the credibility of the trainer eroded. We illustrate this in Figure 1.
Fig.1
GUIDELINES FOR GIVING FEEDBACK
To be useful, feedback must be acceptable to the receiver
The trainee can choose what to do with the information received from others. Inappropriate, insensitive, feedback will only cause resentment, hostility, and defensiveness. A constructive atmosphere is necessary where the giver of feedback is exploring ways to improve, not giving advice as an expert. Every trainee needs to discover the best way for them.
Giving positive feedback on successes before any negative feedback helps to gain acceptance of the feedback overall. We should acknowledge feedback as the observations, opinion and feelings of the giver rather than an absolute assessment.
Focus Feedback on behaviour rather than on personality
Referring to what the person did is important so that feedback is descriptive rather than evaluative. To say, for example, "You have rejected six different objections to your proposal" can be presented as a factual description of an observed situation. To say instead "You are a stubborn, prejudiced individual and you need to change or you will find yourself in great trouble". This latter type of feedback is:
An evaluative judgement that we should not make without supportive evidence.
The kind of feedback that is unlikely to be acceptable to the trainee.
The kind of feedback that gives the trainee no practical help on how to improve.
Changing behaviour is quite possible for an individual, but attempting to change personality is much more difficult, if not impossible. We create frustration if we give feedback on some shortcoming over which the trainee has no control - ie. part of their personality.
Feedback should focus on observations rather than inferences
Observations are what you can see and hear in a person's behaviour; inferences are the interpretation and conclusions you draw from that observation. Consequently, they are open to dispute. The giver of feedback can accurately report what he or she observed happened, but can only guess at the reason. To say, for example, 'You have interrupted three people during the last half hour', is more acceptable than saying 'You are too fond of your own voice'. You can observe or measure the amount of talking someone does and give accurate feedback on it. Nevertheless, it is dangerous and may be untrue to imply that someone who talks a lot is "too fond of their own voice". There could be other reasons why they say a lot.
Concentrate on change rather than make value judgements
Avoid evaluative language, for example: 'You are a bore'. Such language increases the likelihood of the trainee reacting defensively. It would be more acceptable to say, for example: 'You talk a lot so I find I tend to "switch off" after a while'.
Having identified an area for change you may hope the trainee explores how to do things differently in the future. Make positive suggestions about how things could be done differently. However, avoid being manipulative. Remember to leave the choice to the trainee about whether to accept or reject the feedback.
Feedback is most acceptable when it is describing specific rather than general patterns of behaviour.
For example, it is probably more useful to learn that 'you talk more than others in the group', rather than to be told that 'you are dominating'. The more specific the feedback given and received, the greater the opportunity to analyse performance and improve.
In providing feedback you are seeking to help the trainee to change and improve performance. You need the trainee's commitment to change, not agreement with your views.
Focus the feedback on the value it may have for the trainee
You should try to be impersonal, and show empathy by asking yourself: 'Who is it I am trying to help?’. It is tempting to give feedback about things of interest to you that are not strictly about the trainee's performance. Concentrate on those things that will help achieve the desired performance. Make sure the aspects of performance you are assessing are relevant to successful performance of the task. The learning must also be transferable to the job situation if the feedback is to help improve job performance. Where exercises are used to learn process skills, concentration upon the products of the exercise may be unhelpful to the application of learning in the job.
Focus feedback on the amount of information the trainee can use, rather than the amount you feel capable of giving
From even a short practice session it is possible to collect a great amount of feedback data. Effective feedback requires you to select the relevant points that the trainee can cope with at once. This means you must select priorities in the feedback you can give. Concentrate on the major determinants of the performance you are assessing.
Feedback should be well timed
Generally, feedback is best given as soon as possible after the learning event. If we delay feedback, it is much more difficult for a person to learn which actions led to a successful (or unsuccessful) outcome.
Check the accuracy of the feedback
Careful observation of the person's behaviour during his or her performance is essential. Some form of a checklist would help. However, always remember that ticks in boxes are secondary to helping the trainee to learn. The checklist is a means to an end, not an end in itself.
In giving feedback you should be helping trainees explore the options open to them in deciding if and how to change. The trainees need to work out for themselves what they want to do rather than be given off the shelf solutions.
For successful learning to take place, by using feedback, there must be commitment to change not compliance with the views expressed by the feedback giver. The feedback giver should be working to get that commitment. Compliance is unlikely to lead to action to change performance.
Effective feedback resulting in commitment to change and the implementation of feedback requires skills in receiving feedback and also giving it. No matter how skilfully given, feedback that the trainee rejects cannot be effective.
GUIDELINES FOR RECEIVING FEEDBACK
Be positive towards the feedback giver
Giving feedback on performance is a threatening activity, particularly for the less experienced. Recognising the benefit to you of the feedback you will receive, and signalling your appreciation, will encourage the person giving it. Eye contact, nods and other nonverbal signals will encourage the feedback. Negative response, or no response at all will reduce the feedback you get.
Listen to the feedback
This is easy to say but difficult to do because of the temptation to deny, argue for and justify what you have said and done.
Clarify and check understanding
Feedback givers may express themselves badly or you may not quite understand their points. Check out what feedback you are getting by paraphrasing back to them your understanding of the main points.
Check the feedback with others
Don't accept one individual's feedback as absolute. Check with others to see whether they agree on areas identified for change and the possible ways of implementing change.
Ask for feedback not volunteered
If areas of your performance concern you and you receive no feedback on them, ask. In some situations you can ask the feedback giver to pay special attention to particular points before observing your performance. There may be one aspect of your performance that you are concerned about and seeking information on it is quite legitimate.
Decide how to use feedback
It is up to you to decide whether you accept or reject the feedback. Whether the feedback is positive or negative, you must decide if you need to change your performance and how you might implement any change.
Explore Options
Having identified an area for change you should explore ways of bringing the change about. This may be done in consultation with the feedback giver, on your own or with someone else who can advise you. The implications for you of any change need to be thought through. You must be committed to the decision you make for introducing change.
Thank the feedback giver
Even when you judge the feedback you have been given was unhelpful you should thank the person. For feedback to continue to be given the trainee needs to signal its value. The next time feedback is given it may be very helpful. Punishing the feedback giver or signalling your discontent will just reduce or eliminate feedback being given.
SUMMARY
Giving and receiving feedback is a demanding process that requires confidence and respect between the parties involved. The advice offered is necessarily broad and will vary between different individuals and activities. We cannot doubt the value of feedback in learning. The provision of feedback is especially important for those 'process' skills that occur during learning activities, particularly involving interpersonal skills.
GIVING FEEDBACK CHECKLIST
1. Must be acceptable to the receiver
2. Focus on behaviour rather than on the person
3. Base feedback on facts and not on opinions
4. Should include observations not inferences
5. Concentrate on change rather than make value judgements
6. Most acceptable when describing specific rather than general patterns of behaviour
7. Focus feedback on the value to the receiver
8. Limit feedback to what the receiver can cope with
9. Timing of feedback is important
10. Check the accuracy of the feedback
RECEIVING FEEDBACK CHECKLIST
1. Be positive towards the feedback giver
2. Listen to the feedback
3. Clarify and check understanding
4. Check the feedback with others
5. Ask for detail not volunteered
6. Decide how to use feedback received
7. Explore options
8. Thank the feedback giver
COACHING
DTS-7
INTRODUCTION
One of the best and most effective forms of training is by means of a one to one relationship between a trainer and trainee. This is because the trainer can have a close and flexible relationship with the individual trainee. This enables a learning event to be developed to suit both the learning needs of the trainee and to satisfy operational requirements. The term 'coaching' is used to describe this form of training. The Glossary of Training Terms defines coaching as:
"Systematically increasing the ability and experience of the trainee by giving him or her planned tasks, coupled with continuous appraisal, advice and counselling by the trainee's supervisor."
In a one to one relationship as described in the definition there are two people involved, the 'supervisor' (or the more appropriate word 'trainer') and the 'trainee'. We also make reference in the definition to 'planned tasks'. Recognising the considerable impact both has on the success of coaching activities is important. For example:
* The trainer has to recognise an individual's training needs, and plan an appropriate coaching session.
* The planned tasks provide the basis for the training needs, and the justification for providing coaching.
TASKS
The definition for coaching refers to trainees being given planned tasks. This draws attention to the learning being work related and the coaching process intended to improve or develop a person's performance. A task is an element of work leading to a specific result. Here are some examples of tasks:
Preparing and delivering a lecture
Calculate Income Tax
Interviewing a client
Start a computer
Writing a letter
- Preparing Plan Proposal
- Formulating Projects
There are many tasks in a typical job, and no clearly defined limits to what constitutes each. The range of activities that form a single task depends on circumstances. While coaching, what matters most is that a person's training needs are met by helping them to learn how to perform a specific task. It is also important that we treat the task as a self contained part of the person's overall job, and that we will give the person sufficient time and opportunity for practice.
Tasks are work-related activities, where each task should have a clearly defined beginning and end. A trainee can probably perform satisfactorily a range of tasks within their job or duties. Figure 1 represents the scope of the job or the range of duties they are required to perform
Fig.1
The person in the job or carrying specified duties is competent to perform most of the tasks and does not require training. However, we highlight several dots to indicate:
1. A task that is new to the person and one he or she will need to learn.
2. A task that is a problem where the person needs help to learn how to do it better.
3. A task that is especially important and is a target for the person to achieve competence.
We made reference earlier to a task being a work activity leading to a ‘specific result’. This implies that for every dot shown in Figure 1 there should be some notion of a specific result or outcome. You should therefore determine standards of competence for each dot or task required for satisfactory performance. For most tasks shown in Figure 1, they need no training, but for the ones that we highlight your services as a coach will be needed. You will be responsible for planning the training and assessing the outcome achieved.
PLANNING TASKS
When planning to increase or change a person's repertoire of tasks the following questions must be carefully considered:
How well will a new task fit into the person's existing duties and responsibilities?
How easy or difficult is the new task to learn?
Are other people performing the task already and is their performance satisfactory?
If the task is being performed badly by others what affect will this have on the trainee?
If others are performing the task can they assist with coaching duties?
Is there a clearly defined standard of performance for the particular task?
Will the trainee be keen and willing to learn the task, or is it one being imposed on him or her?
If the trainee is already performing the task, does he or she know that it is not being performed satisfactorily?
Planning a task is therefore not something one does without consideration of these and other questions that might be pertinent to the situation. It is essential to establish a sound reason for asking a person to learn a task, and to ensure that we then provide adequate learning opportunities.
TYPES OF TASKS
The list of tasks given earlier indicates the wide range of tasks to be encountered. Some will be straightforward and relatively easy to learn and others far more complex, usually involving decision making. We can make a useful distinction between these two types of task:
Reproductive Tasks
These are tasks that are always performed in the same way. Satisfactory performance occurs when the person performing the task follows established procedure, observes all the rule and regulations, accuracy, etc. and in effect, repeats a model performance. For example, each time you start a computer you follow the same procedure this is a reproductive performance, and would be done in a similar manner by anybody using a computer.
Productive Tasks
These are tasks that require a different performance each time they are done. Two people can perform the same task, and do them differently but correctly. Usually, the reason for this is that a person has to decide and apply a considerable body of knowledge and experience to what might be a unique performance. Also, there is no clear cut, and definitive 'correct' result. For example, each time you conduct an interview you do it differently, depending on the individual being interviewed; a colleague could interview the same person and do it differently, but equally successfully.
The distinction between the two tasks becomes important for coaching activities because:
There is one way of doing a reproductive task and the trainee has to learn what this is, and be given sufficient 'drilled' practice to ensure competent performance.
Productive tasks require the trainee to acquire knowledge and use it to plan and decide. Because each performance of the task is likely to be different, the trainee cannot learn in the same way as for a reproductive task. Instead, the trainee has to develop competence by performing the task in many different situations.
Making a clear-cut distinction between the two types of tasks is rarely possible. A typical task will usually contain elements of both productive and reproductive performances. Although the ways in which people learn the two types of tasks are different, most tasks will contain elements of both and the coaching procedure needs to be adjusted accordingly.
APPLYING THE FOUR WAYS OF LEARNING
All four ways of learning - Trial and Error, Thinking, Being Told and Imitation - should be used to create an appropriate learning event. Figures 2 and 3, below, illustrate how they can influence the sort of learning event needed to learn either a reproductive or productive task.
Learning Event for a Reproductive Task
Fig.2
This shows a learning event for a reproductive task. Here, there is one, and one only, method of performing the task. You should know what this is and have the necessary degree of expertise to help the trainee learn it by using an appropriate combination of the four ways of learning. For example:
Imitation Demonstrate performing the task, ensuring that the trainee can observe all actions you have taken.
Being Told Explain why the task has to be performed, and the correct procedure to be followed.
Trial and Error Let the trainee try, following the demonstration and using the information provided in the explanation.
Thinking Ask the trainee questions to check understanding and competence to cope with any possible variations that might occur.
Learning Event for a Productive Task
Fig.3
This shows a learning event for a productive task. Here, there is no one, correct way of performing the task. Each performance will in some way be different. This is reflected in how you use the four ways of learning. Notice the greater emphasis on thinking and the minor importance attached to demonstration and explanation. This will influence how you can help the trainee to learn. For example:
Imitation Where possible demonstrate the reproductive elements in the task and respond to the trainee's requests to show how you would cope with typical situations that might arise.
Being Told Respond to whatever explanation the trainee might request.
Trial and Error Opportunities have to be created to enable the trainee to practise performing the task and to cope with variations that are likely to occur.
Thinking Productive tasks require the application of a combination of education, experience and professional expertise towards performance of a task and the achievement of a successful result. This requires the trainee to think about how they might perform the task and 'to think through' the consequences of certain actions.
RELATIONSHIP WITH TRAINEE
Coaching a person to learn a new task, or helping someone overcome performance problems by means of a one to one relationship can prove very demanding. Coaching can often be a highly productive task to perform and sensitive use of the four ways of learning will be one factor influencing any relationship with a trainee.
The trainer's relationship with the trainee is something that has to be developed. There cannot be a 'right' or 'wrong' technique for a coaching session because there are too many variables to take into account. You can adopt two basic approaches:
Fig.4
Using a trainer centred approach is particularly suitable for reproductive tasks because you are the focal point and the trainee is learning the task directly from you, or under your supervision.
Using a trainee centred approach exposes the trainee directly to the performance of the task and provides a direct opportunity to learn about it. Your role is to provide guidance, advice and, when requested, instructional support. This approach is particularly suited to learning productive tasks.
BEHAVIOURAL SKILLS
The relationship between you and the trainee will often depend on behaviour yours, in particular. The expression 'behaviour begets behaviour' also implies that your behaviour will influence the behaviour of your trainee. Bearing in mind your relationship with a trainee, consider two behaviours associated with information giving information and seeking information. The first is where you adopt a trainer centred approach to give information you believe the trainee needs. The responsibility for deciding this was yours. The trainee could only respond by accepting (or rejecting) it, mentally organising its storage, and applying it when required.
In the second instance you are giving information relevant to a trainee's request, using a trainee centred approach to provide whatever information they ask for. The trainee takes the responsibility for deciding what this information should be. An important aspect of coaching is to use a suitable combination of behaviours. In this example, if the task being learned is mainly reproductive, then giving information is appropriate, but would be inappropriate if the task is productive. You will find some behaviours useful when helping a person to learn by means of coaching:
Giving Information giving a trainee facts, procedures, tips and explanations.
Seeking Information where the trainee takes the initiative to ask you for information, opinions and suggestions.
Clarifying where you exchange information to ensure mutual understanding.
Proposing where you or the trainee introduces new ideas or ways of tackling a task.
Building where you add to or develop a trainee's proposals.
Summarising in which you, or preferably the trainee repeats essential points of a coaching session.
COACHING A REPRODUCTIVE TASK
The situation here is where you have a trainee who has to learn a task that is mainly reproductive. You have the necessary expertise and plan to adopt a 'trainer centred approach' to the coaching session. Let us apply the framework of the learning unit to this situation.
OBJECTIVE
The task is reproductive, and you can perform the task and can carry out any task analysis that might be needed. This should result in being able to state the Performance, giving the trainee a clear and specific description of what has to be achieved.
The more clearly defined and explicit the objective the easier it will be to arrange the coaching session, because both you and the trainee will have a clear target or outcome for which to aim.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR
The trainee is expected to learn a reproductive task where there is only one way for it to be done. This may raise some problems, for example:
Has the trainee already learned how to perform the task but wrongly, and therefore facing the prospect of 'unlearning'?
Are you a recognised 'master performer' of the task, and acceptable as the trainer?
- What is the trainee's likely reaction to the trainer-centred approach you choose to use?
LEARNING EVENT
The learning event should use the trainer centred approach on the assumption that the task is reproductive and that the trainee's training is directed towards competence to replicate a 'master performance', here yours.
Because the task being taught is reproductive, it tends to make the task of the trainer somewhat reproductive. We therefore suggest the following procedure as a way to plan and implement a learning event for a task that is mainly reproductive.
1. Have Everything Ready
All materials, tools and paperwork should be laid out in the correct position, with all instructional aids within easy reach.
2. Establish a Contact
Make sure the attention of the trainee is gained before beginning the instruction.
3. Introduce the Task
Briefly introduce the task, giving its name, purpose and relevance to other tasks and the work in general. State the objective.
4. Demonstrate
Place the trainee so that he or she has the same view as you do. Emphasise hand movements. Do the skill elements of the task several times until the trainee seems to understand. Do not explain at this stage; let the trainee concentrate on what is being done.
5. Explain Hand Movements
Explanation of the demonstration can now follow. Hand movements, procedures followed and we can explain points of particular importance.
6. Describe the Senses Used
Point out any important senses sight, hearing, feel, etc.
7. Ask the Trainee to Explain
To check the success of the demonstration and explanation, ask the trainee to name in order the points emphasised. Correct if there are any errors and repeat several times to ensure mastery.
8. Ask the Trainee to Try
The trainee should try the skill, explaining what he or she is doing. Encourage the trainee to spot mistakes. Repeat to ensure no errors.
9. Let the Trainee Practise
Allow the trainee to practise with the minimum of supervision. Check frequently to ensure correct procedure
10. Demonstrate Target Time
As the trainee approaches mastery of the task, introduce the target time if appropriate to the task. Demonstrate, keeping to the target time.
11. Re Check
Allow the trainee to practise, ensuring correct performance within the target time. Watch out for any problem areas in performance.
12. Link On
Explain and demonstrate, where appropriate, how mastery of this task enables others to be learned as part of an overall training programme.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
With a reproductive task, and where there are clearly defined performance standards to be achieved, the performance assessment can be rigorous. Depending on the task, performance measures can be based on a suitable combination of the 'process' of performing the task, or the 'product' of what is achieved.
Process Assessment
We usually base this on some form of a checklist developed from analysis of the task. It draws attention to important procedural details of performance and can be used by either the trainer, another person in a supervisory role, or the trainee.
Product or Output Assessment
This is concerned with what is produced from performing the task. This is usually something physical (e.g. an Income Tax calculation, or a prepared Plan document) and is often easy to measure and assess.
Some tasks require careful assessment of process rather than product or output. One advantage of coaching is that it is usually possible to do both, and often assessment becomes an integral part of the coaching session.
Another feature of performance assessment that applies to all coaching sessions is the extent to which the trainee accepts responsibility for his or her own performance assessment. If assessment is seen as achieving standards of performance, it becomes a target that once achieved may not easily be repeated. On the other hand if assessment is the responsibility of the trainee, it becomes continuous and an integral part of performing the task. This can be based on two forms of assessment:
Formative Assessment:
This involves the trainee and serves to provide non threatening feedback about performance. It is particularly suitable for 'trial and error' learning, both during coaching sessions and on occasions when the trainee is performing the task under normal working conditions.
Summative Assessment:
This should be used where the objective for the task defines a clear standard of performance that must be achieved. A further requirement is that we assess the trainee’s performance against the objective and available standards to decide whether the trainee is competent to perform the task. Examples of this form of assessment include tests for operating computers, processing data and making projections.
COACHING A PRODUCTIVE TASK
The situation we have in mind here is where you have to help a trainee to learn how to perform a productive task. This is a task where there is no 'correct' procedure to follow, where the emphasis is on, creativity, evaluating options and the ability to make decisions.
The essential difference between helping a person to learn a productive, rather than a reproductive task, is that with a productive task you are essentially helping the person tackle their learning process, using a 'trainee centred' approach. Depending on your background, your contribution may include:
Helping to arrange suitable conditions for learning.
Establishing timescales within which learning and practice can be arranged.
Helping to define outcomes to be used to measure competence.
Providing professional or technical assistance.
Arranging access to experts who can act as 'Resource Persons'.
Acting as a 'mentor' to the trainee, providing encouragement, help and support during the learning process.
The situation we have described is for a highly productive task, where your involvement is mainly as a facilitator of the learning process. Previously, we described a situation where you were the 'expert', training a person to perform a reproductive task. Many coaching activities will be to help people learn tasks that include both reproductive and productive elements. Having already dealt with coaching reproductive tasks, we will now concentrate on productive tasks. However, please remember that in practice the division between the two will not be as clearly defined.
OBJECTIVE
Because the task is productive, setting a precise objective might be difficult. This will depend on the context in which the task is being learned. Some examples may serve to illustrate the situation:
The trainee might be newly appointed and learning a task performed by several people in a working group. An objective should therefore be easy to define.
The task might be one for which we have established no performance criteria. It might therefore be inappropriate to set rigid objectives that do not take account of work related factors that might only materialise during successive performances of the task.
The task might be considered as a problem for the particular trainee. The trainee might be an established member of the working group and we design the coaching sessions to help improve performance. Any improvement is of benefit and it would be unrealistic to set what might be unattainable objectives.
We might give the task to a person for development purposes. The objective might include a phrase such as 'to develop a new appraisal system' and the implicit challenge is to learn about appraisal systems and to develop one for a particular application. Given a highly motivated person, we need no further statement of objective.
The danger of listing examples such as the ones above is that they may lead to the conclusion that for productive tasks no objective can or should be stated. Compared with reproductive tasks fixing a clear objective is more difficult, but we can describe most productive tasks in terms of performance or outcomes to be achieved.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR
Many points mentioned in the earlier reference to entry behaviour for coaching reproductive tasks still apply. However, due to the change to a trainee centred approach and the increased demands placed on the trainee, other factors should be considered.
Does learning the tasks rely on experience or educational attainment?
Has the trainee got 'learning to learn' skills?
Has the trainee the necessary degree of motivation and maturity to respond to the learning opportunities the trainer is planning to provide?
What opportunities to learn will be provided in the working environment? This relates to opportunities to practise performing the task under normal working conditions, with support from other members of the working group.
LEARNING EVENT
We should structure this around any reproductive elements in the task. These are fixed points of reference and need to be learned at an early stage in the coaching session. A trainer centred approach may be chosen for these elements, although avoiding this approach might be more advantageous, instead using the opportunity to assess the trainee and encourage self-reliance. Other points to note:
If there is no clear cut way of performing the task you should resist the temptation of imposing your way or solutions.
The trainee will learn how to cope with the analysis of data, problem solving and decision making, often in unique circumstances that cannot easily be replicated in your presence.
Productive tasks usually involve a considerable amount of thinking. The trainee, having taken the time and effort to solve problems and evaluate possible courses of action makes’ decisions. These might not be the 'best' decisions, but he or she can claim ownership of them and a degree of pride in having made them. There is considerable significance in this for you:
Do you accept these decisions, although you know they are not particularly good ones?
Do you impose your decisions and risk the consequences of comparison?
Much depends on the relationship that exists or can be developed with the trainee. Coaching productive tasks places a far greater burden on the trainer than coaching reproductive tasks. Far more demands will be made of your counselling skills and the extent to which you can nurture creative, possibly original thought. A learning event for a productive task can be as much a learning opportunity for the trainer as for the trainee.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
This will depend on the clarity with which the objective was set. If it was specific and unambiguous, establishing realistic and measurable performance criteria might be possible. Often with productive tasks this will not be possible and may be inappropriate. The points made earlier regarding process and product, and formative and summative measures of assessment still apply. The emphasis should be towards formative assessment introduced early in the learning event, and continued throughout the coaching sessions. It is also worth noting that with a truly productive task there is no absolute standard of performance. The learning event may continue long after satisfactory task performance has been attained and coaching activities completed.
GUIDELINES FOR LEARNING FROM A RESOURCE PERSON
In a trainee centred approach to coaching, especially when dealing with a productive task, trainees have to accept considerably more responsibility for their own learning process. This is not always easy and depends on the person's learning skills. Some people acquire these without necessarily recognising them as such. These people are unlikely to have difficulty in taking responsibility for their own learning. This is also likely to be true for people who have had training based on an active, experiential learning approach. But, what about other people who are faced with the unfamiliar prospect of having to learn for themselves - where the task they are learning requires them to learn by 'thinking' and 'trial and error'?
There is a natural tendency for people, especially younger members of staff, to rely on others to act as 'instructors'. Often this can be justified, particularly when learning reproductive tasks, but not when learning productive ones. When using a trainee centred approach it is important that you avoid allowing the trainee to become 'trainer dependant'. The person should be encouraged to develop their own approach to learning and to use others as 'resource persons'.
The following notes provide useful advice to trainees who have to learn from resource persons. They may give you some hints for your own learning and, most important, guidance for people you are helping to learn.
PLANNING
1. Clarify what you want to learn. Write it down as a checklist or questionnaire.
2. Anticipate communication problems when the resource person is not a trained instructor and may have difficulty participating in a learning event.
3. Consider the environment for the learning event. Factors such as noise and interruptions will affect learning.
4. Put yourself in the resource person's place. What is in it for him or her?
5. Contact the person in advance to explain the purpose of the session and what you would like to learn.
DURING THE LEARNING EVENT
1.Try to make your interest and objectives clear. For example:
"I want enough of the technical vocabulary of investing to understand the advice of professional advisers and brokers."
"I'd like to be able to use the computer to edit text stored in the word processor."
2. Recognise the need to organise the learning event for your benefit. If necessary, be assertive:
"I'm afraid I don't follow that"
"Could you give an example?"
"Would you show me again more slowly?"
"May I try it now?"
"May I try to summarise?"
3. Give and seek feedback:
"That's very helpful."
"Am I asking the right questions?"
"What do you think I ought to do next?"
"I'm learning more than I expected."
"To be honest, that's more than I need to know about ............."
PREPARING A LECTURE
DTS-8
INTRODUCTION
Lectures have been used since ancient times as a convenient method of communicating information to a large number of people. Convenience, however, is different from efficiency. Lectures are somewhat like primitive steam engines in that they provide a means of delivery, but one that is not particularly efficient. This is especially true when a lecture is being used to communicate information that people need for job performance. With modern technology, we can improve the efficiency of a steam engine considerably to make it a viable option for motive power. The same applies to lectures, because they too can become more efficient by making use of a better understanding of how people learn and by using visual aids.
A lecture gives trainees’ specific information that is usually task, job or occupation related. The trainees need the information for their work and to enable them to discharge their duties correctly. If they don't need the information there is no justification for attending the lecture. A lecture for training purposes should have a clear focus with a specific objective. The information you are providing should be essential to the trainees' performance and, taking an extreme position, failure to learn the information will affect their work.
The Glossary of Training Terms tells us that a lecture is:
"A straight talk or exposition, possibly using visual or other aids, but without group participation other than through questions at the conclusion."
STAGES INVOLVED IN PREPARING A LECTURE
We list the process below which we shall follow. We recommend that you prepare the lecture by developing each of these stages in turn, although you may find that you have to go back to modify earlier stages as you work through the process.
The Objective of a Lecture
Entry Behaviour
The Learning Event
Deciding the Content
Planning the Sequence
Planning for Maximum Recall
Structuring the Lecture
Use of Visual Aids
Performance Assessment
Review
Feedback
THE OBJECTIVE OF A LECTURE
A possible starting point for your lecture might be to ask “Why are the trainees are attending your lecture?” or “What important points and principles do I want the trainees to learn?" However, it might be of more benefit to ask, “What must the trainees be able to do at the end of it?"
The answer to this question provides the basis for the objective of the lecture. You will benefit from a clearly defined objective because you can then concentrate solely on providing the information needed to enable the trainees to achieve it.
What is more, trainees benefit from a clearly stated objective, because it tells them what they are expected to be able to do from attending the lecture. Note that something like 25% of the 'doing' might be achieved by simply stating the objective. Trainees can concentrate their thoughts and further study on what should be some clearly stated, needs related, performance requirements.
The objective is a logical starting point for the lecture. Depending on circumstances you might be given the objective, or be expected to write one yourself. In the latter case this should initially be a draft objective, which may require modification as you take account of entry behaviour, content, time and performance assessment.
A lecture is a means of communicating information and can only be used to provide trainees with knowledge only. This means that we need to specify two things in the objective what the trainees can do after the lecture, and how we are going to check that they can. In other words, the Performance and the Test of Performance.
Performance
This describes what the trainees can do after attending the lecture. The performance will be based on knowledge received; they can do such things as describe the information they have received, or list Major Points you have given them, to state a principle or law described in the lecture.
Because the lecture deals with knowledge only, the statements of performance should state what the trainee will be able to do with the knowledge gained. We should phrase them in achievable and measurable terms, such as 'describe', 'list', 'state', 'recall', 'explain' and so on. The second part of the objective takes the action described in the performance and defines how it is to be assessed.
Test of Performance
This describes how we will test the trainees’ performance and the criteria to be used. For example, if the objective said trainees can state the four stages of the Systematic Approach to Training the test of this performance would be to require the trainees to state all four stages.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR
Much of the success or failure of your lecture will depend on the trainees. Consideration of their entry behaviour will enable you to plan a lecture that is effective for them, enabling the trainees to achieve the objective and preparing them for further learning events. The following points about entry behaviour need to be considered:
The trainees' existing knowledge and previous learning experience. Awareness of existing knowledge will help you decide where your lecture will start, and the assumptions you can make about previous learning. Awareness of previous learning experiences will also alert you to the trainees' likely attitude and willingness to learn.
Individual differences between trainees. If your lecture was to be given only to one trainee, you can match your lecture to the trainee. You would sense the trainee's response to your explanation and adjust accordingly. As the learning group grows in number and individual differences in entry behaviour arise, it becomes more difficult to adjust your lecture to suit everyone's entry behaviour. Prior knowledge of the trainees should enable you to prepare a suitable and, therefore, a more effective lecture.
Acceptability of the Information
Acceptance or rejection of the information you are providing in your lecture is likely to be between two extremes. The information may be accepted if you have explained to the trainees the reason why they need the information and it is new, interesting and does not conflict with their existing knowledge or opinion. Occasionally you may find yourself, possibly unwittingly, moving towards trainees rejecting your information. This is likely to occur when you are dealing with contentious information, going 'over' or 'under' their heads, or making the lecture difficult to understand by using a poor structure, inappropriate lecturing technique, or poor visual aids. The essential point to consider is that you are going to deal with a group of trainees, possibly unknown to you, whose approach to learning may not be in accord with your assumptions. The likelihood of acceptance or rejection may depend on your sensitivity to their entry behaviour.
The maturity of the trainees, which will affect the way you discuss the subject, but also may influence how you assess achievement. An assessment measure for younger trainees might be by means of a written test; the same test given to older trainees might be threatening and harmful to their willingness to learn.
Your credibility to the trainees, or your perceived status as the provider of information. Are you likely to be accepted as an 'expert'? They might expose your credibility generally during a lecture and prior information about entry behaviour should enable you to avoid the worst of the pitfalls awaiting the unwary, insensitive lecturer.
Flexibility
Try to build in to your lecture some degree of flexibility. This is difficult with a large group of trainees, but often encouraging some interaction is possible. Trainees appreciate relevant anecdotes and similar means of adding variety and interest. Mature trainees may want to participate by sharing experiences, discussing interesting points in relation to their work, and generally wishing to be treated as equals. The more formalised and structured the lecture becomes, the more difficult you will find it to adapt and cater for these situations, most of which you should encourage. Where possible allow time to check entry behaviour by encouraging trainees to participate and express themselves.
THE LEARNING EVENT
The learning event is the 'live' occasion when you are giving your lecture and communicating to your trainees. We will help their learning if they know:
Where they are going
How they are going to get there.
The first point has been covered because the objective of the lecture tells them where the lecture is going and what they are expected to achieve when they get there. The second point, how they are going to get there, is dealt with by considering the following aspects of the learning event you are preparing:
Deciding the content
Planning the sequence
Planning for maximum recall
Structuring the Lecture
Use of Visual Aids
Preparing Lecture Notes
DECIDING THE CONTENT
The objective for your lecture, should give a clear idea of information you need to communicate. However, in such a short statement it will have left unstated the many small items of information that might or might not be included. A useful technique to identify these items is the use of the 'spray diagram'. The diagram is started by stating the central theme of the objective, say ‘Word Processing’. Around this central theme subsidiary elements are added until the diagram looks something like Figure 2.
Fig. 2
The diagram is far from complete and more subsidiary elements or 'balloons' can be added, each adding a small contribution to the content that might or might not be included in a lecture on 'Word Processing'. There is no real end to this process and the spray diagram can continue to be expanded until we have included all conceivable items of information. We can then edit the content shown on the spray diagram, by:
Saying all the items on the diagram 'could' be included in your lecture.
Reducing these 'could' be items to ones that 'should' be included.
Reducing these 'should' items still further to ones that 'must ' be included.
The 'must' items form the content of your lecture and study of them may lead you to revise the draft objective. We illustrate the process in Figure 3, below:
Fig. 3
PLANNING THE SEQUENCE
Having a logical sequence is important, but we must be careful. What seems logical to the lecturer may not seem so to the trainee. Consider the example in Figure. 4, below, which shows the content of a lecture arranged in a strictly logical sequence:
Fig. 4
You will probably have attended lectures planned in this way. You will also recall that there is a lot of work inferred in those four headings before you get to the concrete, specific case with which you are familiar in everyday life. While having preliminary knowledge to understand the phenomenon of rusting may be necessary, this approach to planning the sequence of the lecture runs the risk that many people will 'switch off' because of the apparent irrelevance of the early stages.
Therefore, we need to consider what is logical from a trainee's point of view not from the point of view of an expert, a theorist, a practitioner or a researcher. Some guidelines to bear in mind when planning is that people learn by progressing from the:
Known to the unknown
Simple to the complex
Concrete to the abstract
Observation to the theory
General to the particular
So why not change the sequence? Start by looking at the situation from the trainees' point of view find something to 'switch them on', to justify learning the theory. Could we not start with the fact of rusting and ask a sequence of questions that would require theoretical answers at a level we think will suit the trainees? Compare the sequence shown in Fig. 4 with the one in Fig. 5, below, the content of both sequences are essentially the same and would lead to the same objective. The sequence shown in Fig. 5 takes account of the trainees' entry behaviour and uses a logical build up, free from unnecessary detail.
Fig. 5
PLANNING FOR MAXIMUM RECALL
The purpose of a lecture is to provide an opportunity for the trainees to acquire information. The objective defines what information they should acquire and later recall the 'must' items in the content. The problem is to relate the information to the capacity of the trainees to remember it, and to devise ways of helping them to recall it.
Fig. 6
The communication process in the lecture uses the trainee's senses of sight and hearing. This input of information is then stored in the trainee's short term memory, which has a limited capacity and can retain information for perhaps 5 30 seconds. Some information will be passed to the long term memory, although most of it will be forgotten as illustrated in Fig. 6. To increase the amount remembered, make full use of the trainee's sensory inputs by:
Emphasising major points, repeating where possible.
Using visual aids to provide the second medium of communication for the same points.
Decide whether the recall of information can be achieved using:
The trainee's long term memory. This means that the trainee can recall from memory the information you provided.
Notes, handouts, and similar sources of information. The trainee can recall information by referring to handouts etc.
Notice how this might change the objective: in one instance we require that the trainee recall from memory, whereas in the other, they can refer to handouts.
PLANNING FOR MAXIMUM RECALL
The trainee's capacity to recall major points of your lecture may depend upon when you present them. Figure 7 below illustrates in a general way when the maximum level of recall occurs.
Fig. 7
From Figure 7 we can see that the maximum level of recall occurs after some 20 minutes and can be maintained for about 30 minutes. This suggests that:
The earlier period is less effective because the trainee's mind has to adjust to possibly an unfamiliar environment. The more suitable this is, the easier it becomes to reach (A).
The period will be shortened if the trainees are in familiar surroundings.
The period length depends on how we introduce the lecture: The better this is, the shorter will be the time to reach full learning recall.
The middle period between (A) and (B) is when learning conditions are most favourable. This is when the major points should be presented. Also, we will lengthen the period if:
Active participation is encouraged.
Visual aids and demonstrations are used.
The trainees know we will give them major points in some form of a handout.
The learning environment is suitable at a reasonable temperature, with circulation of fresh air and out of direct sunlight.
Mental and physical fatigue affects the later stages of the lecture after (B). This results in a decline of information retained. (B) provides the time in the lecture when we should summarise the major points. Other points to note are:
The lecture should be kept as short as possible after (B).
We can introduce another learning method (for example, a discussion) after (B) to maintain active participation and promote further learning.
If there are facts and explanations that they must remember, some form of a handout would help the trainees. We can regard this as 'post lecture' learning. The lecture starts the process, and subsequent study aids long term memory storage and recall.
STRUCTURING THE LECTURE
Figure 8, below, shows a basic structure that applies to most lectures:
Fig. 8
Introduction
You should plan to gain the audience's attention by explaining why we are asking that they attend the lecture. We should state the objective of the lecture, so that trainees know what they are expected to achieve. You should explain the lecturing structure you propose to use. Also let the trainees know what to expect and how you want them to participate.
Major Points
This is where you can effectively communicate information. It should be in an organised form that is logical to the trainee. You have around 30 minutes in which you should have the trainee's maximum attention. We should communicate all essential major points during this period. By
the end of this period the trainee's attention will be waning and they will be less likely to remember.
Summary
Start this by summarising the major points of the lecture the ones you expect the trainees to remember. Depending upon the technique used, inviting questions might be necessary.
You can check whether the trainees have achieved the performance stated in the objective. This can be done formally or informally depending on the objective and entry behaviour of the trainees.
Thanking the trainees can complete the lecture and linking what they have achieved to further learning activities.
USE OF VISUAL AIDS
Visual Aids are an essential feature of effective communication. Most lectures are improved by using visual aids that we develop as part of preparation for a lecture. Generally, they are worth using to help trainees learn the major points of the lecture; they should:
Attract and Hold Attention
When trainees are listening passively, their attention is easily distracted. An interesting visual aid can attract and hold attention.
Explain Words
If they do not understand a critical word in a sentence, or is misunderstood, not only does the sentence become useless, we weaken the trainee’s belief in the prospect of success.
Illustrate Relationships/Concepts
The saying 'A picture tells a thousand words' holds true.
Consolidate Learning
The key points of a lecture can be presented on an overhead projector or recorded on a flipchart or chalkboard.
Research has shown that we take in more information from the sense of sight than we do from listening, in the ratio of something like:
75% Sight
25% Hearing and other senses
Bearing this in mind, it is not surprising that other studies have shown that lectures using visual aids are far more effective for understanding and recall than lectures that do not use visual aids.
Some further observations about visual aids:
They should be simple
Where possible use pictures and diagrams rather than many words.
Use colour to give contrast to different major points.
Where possible prepare visual aids before the lecture (e.g. overhead projector transparencies and flipcharts) Do not waste valuable learning time during the lecture.
Use 'formal' visuals (e.g. an overhead projector) for pre prepared material, and use chalkboards and flipcharts for 'informal' visuals developed during the lecture.
Ensure all major points of the lecture are presented visually and orally.
PREPARING LECTURE NOTES
There is no standard format for the notes needed to give a lecture. Some lecturers rely on detailed notes and many rarely look at them. Some use papers or cards with lists of topic headings as prompts; others rely on their visual aids and use them as prompts; others do not use notes, and however well they lecture one might ask whether their lecture would have been better if they had used them. Some general observations about lecture notes:
They are there to help you and are therefore personal to you.
They should be kept as simple as possible.
They should be easy to read you might be some distance away from your notes.
Use colour to ensure we do not miss major points.
Use sketches to indicate where a visual aid is to be used
Include a time schedule.
Although your lecture notes are personal to you, there may be occasions when colleagues have to give similar lectures and would probably appreciate reference to your notes. Some training organisations require lecturers to use a standardised format and we attach an example as an appendix.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
A lecture is rarely the only element in a learning unit or a course. More usually it is used to introduce new information, or start or consolidate other forms of learning. This influences the type of performance assessment used. There are many possible forms of assessment at one extreme are formal written tests, and at the other no assessment whatever. Before deciding the assessment to be used for a lecture, it is worth considering questions such as:
What sort of information are you communicating? If it is based on a body of facts an objective test might be used, but more complex, conceptual information is difficult to assess in this way.
How does this lecture link in with other learning? We might develop information and ideas introduced in the lecture in a succession of learning events. Any interim assessment may hinder this process.
What are the consequences of trainees failing to achieve the objective? Each lecture must be considered individually. Sometimes the consequences of failure to learn are important and justify careful testing; often rigorous assessment cannot be justified.
How are trainees likely to react to assessment? Depending on entry behaviour, some trainees will expect and may require assessment, others would find it a threatening, demeaning and totally unnecessary experience.
We should state the purpose of the lecture in the 'performance' part of the objective. The second part of the objective, if included, describes how the trainee's achievement is to be measured. Because a lecture is essentially a method of communicating information, it is only this knowledge based performance that we can measure. This limits assessment to establishing whether trainees can 'describe', 'list', 'state' and so on. Depending on the objective, the importance of the lecture, and the trainee's entry behaviour, we can suggest two general approaches to assessment.
Formal Assessment
Here we give trainees an oral or, more likely, a written test. Recall of knowledge (lower order questions, particularly) can be tested objectively. The trainees can complete the test quickly, it is easily marked and the trainees can get immediate knowledge of results. Open questions can also be used, where trainees have to answer questions in their own words. These are easily set, but are subjective and difficult to assess.
Higher order questions, possibly as assignments, can be given to consolidate learning, and to relate newly acquired knowledge to work situations. Such questions do not offer immediate knowledge of results and should be considered in addition to other assessment measures.
Informal Assessment
Sometimes the trainees' entry behaviour is such that any attempt to use a formal test would lead to discord or undue anxiety. This will be especially apparent in older trainees and where one is dealing with a controversial topic, and there is a possibility of the message of the lecture being rejected. Here performance assessment is based on your observations of trainee responses. The larger the group the more difficult this becomes to manage, but the way people answer questions, participate in discussion and generally respond to your explanation will provide ample proof of achievement. It might be argued that this approach to assessment is not scientific. Probably this is true, but it might be the only practicable way and is certainly better than not trying at all.
SUMMARY
The purpose of this handout is to help you to prepare a lecture. This is done by suggesting that you use the following procedure:
Describe in general terms what you believe the trainees need to know.
Develop a 'spray diagram' to show the possible extent of the content of the lecture.
Carefully edit the spray diagram to eliminate all points that are not essential to the content of the lecture.
- List the major points of the lecture - the points the trainees must be able to recall.
Alongside this list, note how you intend to assess whether they have learned the point.
Review the content, taking a critical look at your list of major points, particularly ones that we cannot assess. Ask yourself whether we MUST include them.
Write the objective for the lecture.
Briefly describe the entry behaviour of your trainees. This might be based on precise knowledge, or on certain assumptions that you must make.
Does the entry behaviour affect the objective? Review the objective if necessary.
Decide the most appropriate structure for the lecture. Do this by relating the objective, the content, the entry behaviour, and how you propose to assess attainment.
Structure the content of the lecture, taking into account the:
Objective
Analysis of the spray diagram
Likely entry behaviour
Lecture structure you consider the most suitable
Time available
Plan your visual aids in relation to the structure of the lecture. Decide the 'formal' aids you will prepare beforehand, and the 'informal' ones that will be evolved during the lecture.
Review the structure of the content to ensure that all main points are suitably presented in visual form.
Prepare your lecture notes and visual aids.
Run through the lecture mentally to check sequence and logic. Adjust where necessary.
Check lecture room and the equipment you intend to use.
FEEDBACK
Trainers plan and implement lectures for the benefit of their trainees. However, the trainers themselves are also presented with a learning opportunity. At the end of a lecture you can ask yourself many questions, ponder over earlier decisions you made, and generally reflect on the changes you would make if asked to do the same lecture again.
The following questions suggest areas for you to consider:
Was the objective appropriate?
Was the objective achieved?
Did you assess the entry behaviour of the trainees correctly?
How did the content relate to the objective and trainees' learning capabilities?
Was the sequence appropriate?
Did you choose the right structure?
Did you ask questions?
Were the questions high or low order?
Did you allow sufficient time to answer questions?
Did you fit the major points of the lecture into the best learning period?
Did you communicate the major points of the lecture visually and orally?
Were your visual aids appropriate to emphasising the major points of the lecture?
Did the trainees appear to learn from your visual aids?
Was your introduction appropriate?
Did you summarise the main points of the lecture?
How was your timing in relation to your planning?
Did you feel comfortable with the timing and content of the lecture?
Did the method of assessing performance suit the trainees?
Was the assessment of performance valid in relation to the purpose of the lecture?
LECTURE PLAN
Name of Trainer:
Subject:
Time Available:
Learning Aids Required
Size of Group:
Objective:
Entry Behaviour:
Means of Assessment:
Guidance:
Colour key: Use RED for points that MUST be emphasised
Time - estimate how many minutes will be needed for each part of the content
Content - provide introduction, development of content, and summary.
Aids - indicate which aid is to be used either by a brief note or a sketch.
TIME
DETAILS OF CONTENT
LEARNING AIDS
TIME
DETAILS OF CONTENT
LEARNING AIDS
VISUAL AIDS
DTS-9
INTRODUCTION
Learning aids should be used to assist communication between people to help convey ideas, information, instructions, etc. This should be done so the information is understood and remembered more clearly than would be the case without the use of the aid. Some aids can convey a message on their own but usually they supplement the spoken or written word.
WHY USE THEM?
Let us answer the question with an example:
Fig. 1
Figure 1 is a visual aid and it gives an opportunity to learn some facts about the contributions each of the five senses make towards helping people learn. An alternative to this visual would have been to present the information in a narrative form. This would require learners to read or listen to a text carefully, assimilate the facts and develop a mental image of them to enable the facts to be remembered.
Which is the easier way for learners to learn? As suggested by Figure 1, it would appear that making use of the sense of sight through visual presentation makes learning easier.
An alternative would have been to show a short film or video to provide the same facts by demonstration and explanation. This would have been an audio visual aid and would probably have more impact than the illustration given in Figure 1. However, would it necessarily have been any more effective as an aid to learning? It probably would have been but the following points have to be considered:
* The visual aid took, approximately 30 minutes to produce. It could have been presented visually in several ways - for example, by using an overhead projector, flipchart, pictures, computer graphic, chalkboard, whiteboard, magnetic board or a sheet of paper.
* The audio visual aid would take about 40 hours to make and require either a cine projector, a computer, or a video playback machine to enable it to be shown.
Compared with learning the facts from spoken or written narrative, both the visual aid and the audio visual aid are far more effective. The choice between them depends on what has to be learned. The example given of factual learning favours the visual aid, but if the example had involved action and dialogue then the audio visual aid, even with the higher costs, would have been a better choice.
The answer to the question 'why use them?', is therefore that visual and audio visual aids are an essential feature of the learning process and make an immense contribution to helping people learn. They provide:
* An appeal to a variety of senses
* A focus of attention
* A change of pace
* A simplified explanation to help understanding
* A more vivid and lasting impression
* A consolidation of learning
* Reference material for later use
* Help in relating or transferring learning to the real situation
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES
We can classify aids into three groups according to the senses they appeal to:
Visual Aids which appeal to the sense of sight
Audio Visual Aids which appeal to the senses of sight and hearing
Audio Aids which appeal to the sense of hearing
Aids can vary from closed circuit TV, or computer systems, to something as simple and quick as a chalk diagram on a chalkboard. Many people think of visual aids as large working models etc. These can be used as visual aids, of course, but an aid can be anything that uses the powerful sense of sight. It may be the size of a postage stamp or a 40-foot wide screen a massive crane or a toy version an expensive, animated film or a slight gesture of the hands: it can be anything that helps to make an impression on the brain through the most powerful and inquisitive of all the senses sight.
Whatever the shape or form of the visual aid, if it is well chosen and well-used it helps the communication process in three basic ways:
a) By helping the audience to understand
b) By helping the audience to recall information sometime after it has been presented
c) By creating interest in the subject matter
OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Although there is evidence to show that visual aids can help communication, there is evidence also to show that they can create barriers to effective communication. Usually we create these barriers when we give insufficient thought to the planning and use of the visual aids for promoting better communication and more effective learning. The following paragraphs outline some more common barriers encountered and offer suggestions on overcoming them.
Decide what we require of the visual aid
Aids should be used as an important and integral part of the learning process. They should be used to create interest; to help learners understand the information being given; to help them recall the major points that they must remember; and to help them develop a mental perception of the information. When preparing a lecture, for example, it is worth building it up around a visual presentation. The proverb to the effect that 'a picture is worth a thousand words' is very true; learners can easily retain a mental image of the picture presented, or a paper copy of it, but they will forget most of the thousand words used instead.
If visual aids are to help understanding, we may need a series of them to explain a certain point or concept. While these visual aids may help to clarify the explanation, they may not, however, help the audience to recall the information later. We may require another aid as a summary, simply done and eye catching to leave a lasting impression. To reinforce that impression further that visual aids can also be included in a handout. This kind of aid may also be the type required to arouse interest or capture attention. The 'interest catching' aid usually speaks for itself. It highlights a major point that we expect the learner to remember.
Plan the visual aid carefully
Good visual aids do not appear by chance or rarely so. Usually a great deal of thought goes into their creation. Having decided what we require of the visual aid, prepare a rough sketch of the content. Then check it carefully to make certain it contains everything wanted.
Having carried out the checks and decided, before producing the final visual aid look at the rough sketch again and ask the following questions:
Is it what is really wanted?
One often sees unnecessary details in visual aids. For example, it may be that the complete balance sheet for a company is presented. Often, a simple graph to show trends would make the point more effectively: most of the detailed information contained in the balance sheet may be irrelevant to the point being discussed.
Is it as simple and bold as we can make it?
Remember, all members of the audience must see it the more detail that we include, the smaller that detail will become in size. Can some words or other material be omitted without reducing the effect of the information being presented?
Can they build the information up step by step to control what the audience is looking at?
One of the most common faults in the use of visual aids is to present too much information at once. The eye is naturally inquisitive and easily distracted and will 'examine' all parts of the visual aid, perhaps distracting the learner's mind towards points to be discussed later.
Is it as interesting as we can make it?
We have already mentioned the ‘interest catching’ aid. The use of colour can enhance interest and the technique used for presenting the visual aid. Try also to use simple illustrations rather than many words.
Is the visual aid neat in appearance?
The appearance of a visual aid may affect people's reactions to it. Aids that are dirty, obviously in need of repair or badly aid out with poor printing, tend not to encourage people to look at them and so defeat their purpose. On the other hand, a visual aid that looks good to the eye may capture attention and help the learning process.
Are there any other visual distractions?
Sometimes avoiding all visual distractions is not always possible. However, there is a common failing to recognise the distracting influence of wall charts, notes on flipcharts or chalkboards, models etc. left from previous sessions. They are all irrelevant to the session but provide visual distraction. Why should the audience look at your visual when nearby there is a far more interesting model that obviously works? We can remove some of these potential distractions before starting, e.g. clean the chalkboard, have fresh paper on the flipchart, shift mobile models out of the learner's line of sight, and so on. Others will be impossible to remove or hide from sight and they will compete with the visuals being used. If your visuals do not capture attention, the competition might succeed in doing so.
Sometimes the trainer creates a distraction for the audience by passing round documents to be examined. Some learners will examine them at the correct time; others 10 or 15 minutes later when their minds will be effectively distracted from what is being discussed at that time. Presenting such material in handout form later is far better or else make it into a visual aid for showing to everyone at the right time.
MAKE LEARNING CONDITIONS AS GOOD AS POSSIBLE
If much effort has been used to produce good visual aids then we should show them to their best advantage. The following points are well worth remembering:
Do not obstruct the view of the audience:
You should make sure not to stand between the visual aid and members of the audience. This does need some rehearsal.
The visual aid must be well placed:
If more than one type of visual aid is being used, their positioning needs special care. You should not have to do a route march between them yet they should be so separated that they can be viewed independently. Again, if possible, have the visual aid placed high enough for everyone to see this may be a problem in rooms that have low ceilings.
When using the projector, avoid unwanted light on the screen:
Strong natural light or artificial light playing on a screen will adversely affect the quality of a projected picture. This could well be a distraction to the viewer.
Make certain the visual aid hardware is in good condition:
This particularly applies to projectors. The lens must be kept clean. The overhead projector, for example, is often poorly maintained, the Fresnel lens and platen being covered with dust and dirt. If this is the case, do not be surprised that picture quality is poor.
Experiment with the seating arrangements for the audience:
This is very much related to the points mentioned above. Trainers tend to stick to a conventional layout for tables and chairs yet a slight modification may improve viewing conditions.
Do not read a visual aid word by word to the audience:
This is another common habit that in many ways is an insult to the audience's intelligence and should be avoided. Sometimes the excuse is made that the visual aid must be read because it is too small to be seen by the audience. If so, then it is not a aid to learning and should not be used at all.
Do not wave a pointer in front of the visual aid:
Try not to wave a pointer haphazardly across a visual aid. If indicating certain parts of the aid is necessary, this should be done as a deliberate action.
Do not talk to the visual aid:
This is a very common fault, and if it is done frequently can be very distracting for the audience. It is often necessary to show something on the visual aid and to say a few words at the same time. The skilful trainer gets into the habit of turning back to face the audience as quickly as possible. If you find this difficult to do, you can force yourself to correct the fault by standing beside the visual aid and speaking to the audience from there.
CHOOSING VISUAL AIDS
The choice of visual aid to be used is dependent on individual circumstances. However, trainers are often part of a management team and can influence the procurement of visual aids, and the fact that one is not available today does not mean it cannot be available tomorrow.
Also you, and your learners, should be willing to try new techniques; both might benefit. Some factors to be considered when choosing the aids to get, learn about and to use include:
What aids are readily available?
This might require the drawing up of an inventory of what is available, both about hardware and software. If preparation time is short, you will probably have to make do with what is available, and ensure when doing so that it is used to best possible advantage.
What aids might become available?
Most visual aids do not cost much money. Chalkboards are inexpensive, and Overhead projectors relatively cheap. This also applies to flip charts, magnetic boards, models, etc. Computer-based visual presentations are now a realistic option.
Of even more importance is the software that we need to justify the acquisition of visual aid hardware. The preparation time that we should devote to developing visual aids far exceeds the time required to use it effectively in a learning event.
What visual aid support service is available?
Your time, graphical or computer skills might be limited, but who else is available to help? Some organisations employ technicians who can translate ideas into a finished aid ready for use. An alternative is to use specialist agencies who will provide complete visual aids to your specification; the cost is high but the quality is excellent.
Another service that might be available is a visual aid’s library. This could (or should) stock a selection of visual aids likely to be used by members of the training team.
Which aid will present the information to the best advantage?
This will require careful consideration of the objective of the session and the main points the learners are to learn. You should also consider the number of learners likely to be present and their entry behaviour.
A further consideration is the information you wish to 'tell' the audience, as opposed to it being developed during the session. The former situation requires pre prepared visual aids (overhead projector transparencies, charts, models, etc.) whereas the latter have to be done during the session using, for example, chalkboard or flipchart. Not confusing the two is important; don't waste valuable learning time writing on a board when the same information can be presented to the audience by simply switching on the overhead projector.
How many visual aids should be used?
As for software there is no easy answer. Having too many visual aids can irritate audiences displayed, but this has to be considered in relation to the information being presented or developed.
Too many pieces of visual aid hardware can result in confusion for both you and the learners. Keep the equipment used to the minimum, but balance this against the main points to be presented in a pre prepared format and points to be elicited from the learners and recorded for reference purposes.
USING COLOUR IN VISUAL AIDS
There are many reasons for using colour when preparing visual aids, including:
Visibility
With all visual aids it is vital that it should be seen by everyone. Colour can be used to highlight various parts of the aid.
Contrast
In order to use colour to best advantage, it is essential to know what colours give the greatest contrast and visibility. Listed below are the main colour pairs in order of contrast:
Black on Yellow
Green on White
Red on White
Blue on White
Black on White
Yellow on Black
White on Red
White on Green
White on Black
Red on Yellow
Red on Green
Interest
Colour always adds interest to any aid. Consider your reaction to colour films in contrast to black and white. Colour adds an extra dimension to a visual, which is absent with black and white.
Coding
Where diagrams or aids are complex, it is possible to simplify them by using colour for a particular set of parts. With careful thought about colour, the emphasis can be placed where the trainer wishes to draw a trainee’s attention.
Legibility
As with visibility, the choice of colours is important to provide clear communication. For example, when using the same sizes of lettering, different effects can be obtained by using black on yellow, rather than brown on green. When choosing colours for your visual aids remember:
* Be selective in the colours you use. Try to restrict the number of colours to a maximum of about four on one visual.
* Keep the bolder, strong contrasting colours for emphasis and use pastel colours (i.e. pale yellow, pink, blue) for general background.
* Colour blindness can present problems for some trainees, so try to avoid light shades of lilac, olive green, and pinks. These are often the colours where this problem occurs
TYPES OF VISUAL AIDS
Mechanical types:
Overhead Projectors
Slide Projectors
Computers
CD Players
Simulators
Video
Non mechanical types:
Chalkboards
Flipcharts
Charts, Posters, Maps and Graphs
Photographs
Text Books
Manuals
Handout Materials
Outlines
REVIEW OF AIDS
To help in the selection and use of aids, a review of some common types of aids follows. The review is given under the main headings of:
Method
Purpose
Precautions and Reminders
Advantages and disadvantages
HANDOUTS
Method
Printed materials available to the trainee for individual study.
Purpose
Reading before the learning event
Completed before or during the learning event
A summary of the learning event
Additional background material
Reference material
Precautions:
Make sure the handout content is relevant
Make sure the material is up to date
The content should be appropriate to the trainees' entry behaviour in assumed knowledge and experience, vocabulary and reading difficulty
Reminders:
If using as a summary, leave to the end, to prevent distraction
If to be worked through, leave space for added notes
Notes can be added during the session.
Consider distributing handouts prior to a session
Most handouts are not read unless there is further use.
Trainees need time to read handouts before expecting them to apply them
Reference material may need updating for past trainees as systems change
Advantages:
Accuracy assured
Encourages trainer to plan
Saves trainee writing and therefore saves time
Assists long term recall of information
Disadvantages:
Not personal to the trainee
Trainee may not read them
Updating can be difficult
THE CHALKBOARD
Method
Prepared or spontaneous drawing or writing
Purpose
To illustrate, record or review major points, key words, charts, diagrams, data, etc.
Precautions:
Make sure the board is stable and cleaned
Test lighting and eliminate glare
Outline drawings, diagrams, etc. Lightly pencil in if board work is to be accurate but appear spontaneous, or alternatively prepare templates
Cover the board if work is prepared in advance
Reminders:
Use coloured chalk for emphasis
Write or draw boldly so that all can see easily
Be brief and keep it simple
Write or draw in planned stages
Use pointer particularly if drawing or data becomes involved
Stand at the side of the board as much as possible so as not to obscure view
Try not turn away from group and avoid talking to the board when writing
Keep board as uncluttered as possible
Erase during review or summary leave the board clean after use.
Advantages:
Cheap to buy, run, maintain
Ease of use mobile, daylight
Trainer can record trainees' responses
Not a permanent aid
Disadvantages:
Messy and unhealthy
Poor visibility
Wastes trainees' time
Difficult to present complex diagrams
THE WHITEBOARD
Method
Generally as chalkboard, with different materials
Purpose
To provide a modern, attractive alternative to a chalkboard.
Precautions:
The special pens need to be tightly re capped when not in use or they will dry out very quickly.
Advantages:
Cleaner than chalk
Useful in rooms where dust can damage equipment
Better visibility and colours than chalk
More impact
Can have a steel base and therefore accept magnetic card
Disadvantages:
Dri wipe pens:
expensive
dry out
unhealthy?
Higher costs:
to purchase
to run
to maintain
THE MAGNETIC BOARD
Method
Progressive presentation of coloured words, symbols, or diagrams, by means of previously prepared and planned use of cards which adhere to the board when pressed against it. Magnetic boards usually are incorporated in either a chalkboard or whiteboard.
Purpose
To provide progressive display of idea or message, or to illustrate simple movement.
Precautions:
In designing cards or symbols, use colour meaningfully with some logical pattern
Make sure that cards are all there and in correct order, preferably face down on the table or desk so that they will not inadvertently be displayed when picked up. Cards should be numbered or otherwise identified on the back surface. A small diagram in the trainer's notes can prompt the correct placement for each card
Reminders:
Place symbols or cards on the board a fraction of a second before commentary
Always apply a slight pressure to each card
Point, move or lift symbols to call attention to them
Depending on type of board, use chalk or dri wipe pens for additional notes
Advantages
Time saving
Display, sequence, flexibility
Better quality, visibility
Re usable
Can demonstrate movement
Disadvantages:
Materials can be expensive
Time consuming to produce
Storage awkward
Suited to simple illustrations only
THE FLIPCHART
Method
Prepared or spontaneous use, similar to a chalkboard but usually free standing.
Purpose
Can provide a permanent record of the content of the learning event for later use.
Precautions:
Make sure the board is high enough and large enough for the audience to see
Pre written notes in pencil can be read by the trainer but not seen by audience
Select broad felt tipped markers in various colours of maximum contrast.
Check pad to be sure that clean sheets are available in sufficient quantity
Use prepared material effectively rehearse sequence and timing at least once
Reminders:
Use colour in a meaningful pattern, not just at random
Write or draw boldly and with a strong line of intense colour.
Write from the side of the board as much as possible to keep facing the audience
Leave pad cleared after use and when not being referred to
Avoid tearing sheets off the pad, turn them over instead
Sequence pages and return to them in review or summary
Small size of flipchart paper limits how much can be displayed
Advantages:
Material can be prepared, saved, re used, referred back to, used in summary, copied
Individual sheets may be displayed on walls etc.
Easily mobile
Disadvantages:
Expensive in paper and pens
Restricted surface per sheet
Pens dry out quickly if left without a cap
THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
Method
Projection of a machine or hand prepared transparencies or of spontaneous writing or drawing done on blank transparencies or acetate roll with special coloured pens.
Purpose
To show detailed drawings or information, and to disclose material in stages.
Precautions:
For really effective overhead projection, a room with a ceiling high enough to permit elevating the screen five or six feet from the floor is desirable
To prevent 'keystoning' of the projected image, tilt the screen forward
The head of the projector and the trainer's body may obstruct audience vision of chalkboard or other aids. Minimise obstruction by raising screen or moving it
Make sure that transparencies are clean and arranged in proper sequence
Ensure the projector works, is in focus and that you have a spare bulb
Reminders:
Avoid leaving the projector light on when there is no transparency on the stage. The blank screen is glaring and distracting.
Try to remember to turn off the projector light before changing transparencies
Generally talk 'around' the topic rather than reading word for word what is written on the transparency
Keep eye contact with the audience as much as possible. Do not turn to the screen to point. A pencil used as a pointer on the projection stage will be more effective and will enable eye contact to be maintained
Do not allow head or shoulders to get in the way of the projected image
Incorporate progressive disclosures of lines or areas of a transparency by moving an appropriately sized piece of paper or thin cardboard
Advantages:
Daylight projection of transparency
Saves learning time through preparation
High quality possible
Can be used with a computer
Trainer can keep contact with trainee
Transparencies can be easily duplicated
Copies of transparencies can be issued to trainees
Visuals can be produced by computer graphics
Disadvantages:
Need OHP equipment
Software can be expensive
Preparation time
Problems caused by intermittent power supply
35mm SLIDES AND FILM STRIPS
Method
Projection of a previously prepared series of transparencies (preferably in colour) either mounted individually or combined into a film strip.
Purpose
Particularly effective for training dealing with procedures or skills, or for any lecture or talk concerning subjects which may be visualised in this way.
Precautions:
The screen should stand well above the heads of the audience and be of correct size for the number of viewers
If using an assistant to operating the equipment brief him or her on the plan and set up a definite cue code so that a response can be made without hesitation
Make sure that the projector is located on a firm surface or projection stand and that a spare lamp is handy
When using slides, check to see that they are all in good condition, in the right order, and correctly loaded
Locate the main light switches and arrange for window coverings if necessary. A completely darkened room is desirable
Because there is some danger of heat damaging the slide or film strip if any frame remains too long in projection, try to keep things moving at a fairly regular pace
Avoid getting into the line of projection
Reminders:
Trainers are sometimes tempted to forget that slides or film strips are visual aids and should not be expected to stand by themselves.
The slide sequence or film strip is not a substitute for a motion picture and cannot be expected to have the same kind of impact.
If possible, the trainer should speak from a position where he or she can see the screen as well as look at the audience
Keep slide or film strip sequences reasonably brief, preferably not more than thirty minutes at the most. Longer sequences tend to become monotonous.
The logical sequel to such a showing is a discussion period, be prepared with a high order key question to get the discussion going
Advantages:
Cheap and easy to produce
Can illustrate the real thing
Full room blackout needed
Show development/compress time
Variety and interest to trainee
Commercial material available
Disadvantages:
Equipment needed to project and to produce
Time needed to produce
Room has to be in darkness
Trainer often behind audience
MODELS AND OBJECTS
Method
Advance construction or preparation of enlarged or reduced scale reproduction or use of the object itself. May be operational, sectional, or transparent.
Purpose
To make visible and accessible things which would be either too large or too small for adequate classroom use, or to lend authenticity through the presence of the 'real thing'.
Precautions:
Arrange the facilities and the group so that the model can be seen (and if necessary, touched) by members of the group
MANUALS, HANDBOOKS, TEXTBOOKS
Method
Advance provision for reference or guide in the study of specific subject matter.
Purpose
To provide a firm framework of material which the trainee may take away with him or her and keep for future use. May be employed as advance or ongoing reading during training sessions or as review materials.
Precautions:
To be effective, written training material must be attractive in format and well illustrated. Textbooks are often less attractive in appearance and more extensive in treatment than is required. The briefer and more concise character of the handout makes it more readily useful; the textbook is often reserved for reference purposes.
SUMMARY CARDS, PERFORMANCE AIDS OR OUTLINES
Method
Pocket sized check lists or reviews of major points; step by step guides for procedures, highly condensed in form.
Purpose
To provide a memory booster which may kept for study at leisure and use as a guide.
Precautions:
Though they will serve a most important need in reminding the trainee what has been learned, their briefness makes it necessary that he or she has an adequate understanding of the subject as a whole.
DISCUSSION LEADING
DTS-10
INTRODUCTION
As the trainer, responsible for helping others to learn, you may not always be the subject matter expert. Sometimes your learners may know as much as you, or have as much or more experience than you on certain topics. Often you will be helping highly experienced, mature, people who are more likely to respond to an organised exchange of ideas and opinions, rather than to 'being told' or taught. In such a situation you may choose a method that facilitates learning by experience sharing and cross fertilisation of ideas. The Glossary of Training Terms defines the discussion method as:
‘A training technique in which the learning derives principally from the participants themselves rather than from an instructor’
Discussion as a method should not be used to 'teach' knowledge new to the learners. It should be used more for sharing experience, encouraging and developing thinking, modifying attitudes and getting commitment. A discussion for training purposes allows individuals to express their concerns and ideas, and to build upon and develop the ideas of group members. We use the method to continue a learning process started by other training methods, such as case studies and group. The purpose of the discussion may be to:
* Share views
* Collect and generate ideas
* Obtain reactions and agreement.
* Develop team work
* Solve problems
* Develop decision-making skills
* Change attitudes
* Consider practical application of theory
* Develop evaluative and synthesising skills
* Stimulate motivation and commitment
To be effective, discussions must allow every member of the group to contribute. This means that there is a limit to the number of people who can participate in a discussion. Between eight and twelve participants is about the optimum number for effective learning. If there are more members, a discussion may be unwieldy, and if there is less they may not stimulate sufficient ideas for an useful discussion.
THE STRUCTURE OF A DISCUSSION
Fig. 1
To ensure a dynamic, stimulating and effective discussion you need to consider how we can structure a discussion. Figure 1 illustrates a model that has proved helpful in planning and running discussions.
The discussion begins with a brief introduction from the leader. This should settle the group, establish the topic for discussion, and stimulate interest and willingness to participate in the discussion. We should plan the introduction before the discussion.
After the introduction, the group need a thought provoking and demanding question that will make them think and want to contribute. We call such a question a Key Question. The first Key Question is critical to the success of the discussion. It needs to be considered beforehand and carefully prepared to:
* Introduce the subject.
* Explain the purpose and reason for the discussion
* Link the discussion to prior learning experiences
* State the objective, if appropriate.
After the leader has posed the Key Question, discussion takes place within the group. You will be involved in that discussion actively listening and occasionally making contributions, depending upon the needs of the group. When we have extracted the learning benefits from the first key question, the group moves on with another key question.
Additional Key Questions can be prepared in advance, at least in outline. The diagram shows that the sequence may vary depending upon the reaction of the group, and the direction in which they are going. The problem you may face is that this direction could be different from what you had planned. Prepare an outline sequence, but be flexible so that you meet the group's progress in the discussion. Remember that you are not in control of the content to the same extent as in a lecture or presentation. Because of this, the planned sequence may not make sense in the actual discussion. So, you may need to adapt to a different sequence as the discussion develops.
At the end of the discussion the discussion leader should summarise what has come out of the contributions and the conclusions reached, if any. Summarising it between Key Questions to consolidate may also be helpful and clarify what has been said and to lead into the next Key Question. This is a matter of judgement and will depend on the circumstances. Sometimes, for example, a group member will make a statement that summarises several earlier contributions: a summary from the leader is then unnecessary.
PREPARING TO LEAD A DISCUSSION
As with all learning events, preparation is important. The better the preparation the more confident you can feel as the discussion leader. Also, the more learning is likely to take place for your learners.
You should undertake the following in preparing for a discussion:
* Set an objective
* Analyse the topic
* Consider the group
* Identify and prepare Key Questions
* Prepare an introduction
* Decide if any other resources would be helpful, e.g. a flipchart
* Organise physical arrangements
We should not take these activities in strict order because decisions about one of them may influence others.
Set an Objective
The objective should identify what they can do at the end of the discussion. This is often difficult to define with discussion leading where ideas, attitudes and motivation are usually involved.
Sometimes you can write the objective before you do anything else. Occasionally you may start with a topic you want to be discussed and only after analysing the topic can you clarify the objective.
The discussion method is generally more appropriate for objectives that deal with feelings, opinions and attitudes. Of necessity these are less precise than objectives dealing with facts or skills. The outcome is less predictable and controllable than say, the outcome of a lecture. The details of the content come from the group and it is less easy to control than when using other methods. Success in achieving the objective is also less easy to measure.
Examples of objectives for discussion leading are:
1. "....group members can describe the role of a leader in a management role"
2. "....participants can analyse the difficulties in conducting audits"
3. "....group members will identify the impact of word processors on their jobs"
The benefit of producing an objective is that it helps you focus on what the discussion is to achieve. You can get people to talk about most things. To use the discussion of a topic to achieve a specific learning objective makes the investment of time and effort worthwhile.
Analyse the Topic
In preparing to lead a discussion you may decide to start with an objective or just a topic heading. You yourself must know quite a lot about that topic - which may also apply to other participants in the discussion. Your job is to help the group to explore the topic and achieve the objective.
To help you lead the discussion, and to get the group's attention on useful areas of the topic, you need to analyse the topic. This process will enable you to identify the key areas for discussion.
As there is usually no specific body of knowledge to be learned to achieve the objective (if there were, another training method would probably be more appropriate) it is difficult to undertake systematic analysis. You can read material published on the subject matter or talk about it with other people to develop your knowledge of the subject and the way other people view it.
One starting point is to think through the topic and its various aspects and implications. During this process there is a danger of forgetting useful thoughts and ideas that would stimulate discussion. It is worth recording your thoughts to help you review and organise them.
Starting with a blank sheet of paper, head it up with the topic title. Then jot down key points, words or questions you think should be discussed about the topic. When you have completed your list of points, you may go back over what you have done, looking for patterns or groupings. This can help you identify areas that the discussion needs to cover. Key points may be questions to which there is no easy answer, or perhaps there is no answer. However, getting to an answer is not the point. The point is to generate learning through a discussion of the issues involved.
The benefit of analysing the topic is that it can help you to decide:
a) What knowledge input may be necessary in the introduction
b) What information the group may need
c) What areas of the topic are irrelevant to the objective
d) Exactly what the objective is
e) Key questions to be put to the group
f) In what order you should discuss the various aspects of the topic
You are responsible for helping the group members to achieve the objective. This will require you to decide which contributions are relevant and are helping the group which is side tracking the group. The clearer you are before the discussion on where you want the discussion to go the easier those decisions will be during the discussion.
Analysis of the topic may help you identify what may be a natural sequence of development for the discussion. This can give you a framework for planning and introducing the discussion. The discussion may develop in a very different way from your planned sequence. Because the group will talk about the topic as they see it, a new sequence may emerge. You must decide how important it is to follow one path rather than another. If you direct the discussion back to your planned sequence, you may take out some spontaneity and interest for group members. This may make the discussion harder work for you and less effective for the group members.
Consider the Group
A group discussion depends for success upon the participation and contributions of members. Each member of the group needs to recognise that he or she has something useful to contribute. They must also realise that they can learn from each other. It is the job of the discussion leader to identify the contributions that individuals can make and encourage them to make them.
In planning the discussion you need to consider:
* Size of the group. Less than 5 is too small to generate sufficient ideas and points of view. More than l2 is too large to keep them discussing as a single group in which everyone participates. You need to split into subgroups
* What knowledge is shared by everyone in the group?
* Breadth of experience in relation to the topic
* Likely reactions to the topic
* Your relationship with the group
* Their position compared with yours
Finding out about the learners and planning the discussion around them should help you avoid unpleasant surprises during the discussion. It will also make it easier for the group members to achieve the objective.
Identify and Prepare Key Points/Questions
Having analysed the topic and considered the sequence you can probably identify most key points to be discussed. In a perfect discussion the leader would introduce each Key Point with a Key Question. The Key Question would then stimulate sufficient relevant discussion within the group to cover completely the Key Point. The discussion leader would not need to intervene to bring the discussion back because the question would succeed in focusing attention entirely upon the Key Point. Once the Key Point is covered, you can summarise and move on to another Key Point. This should be introduced with another Key Question.
This model of a perfect discussion infers that the Key Question has been effective in stimulating interest, focusing attention and encouraging everyone to contribute. Key Questions need to be carefully thought out and planned. They must make the group think and use their experience. The wording of a question should not be threatening to individuals in the discussion group. There should not be any easy answer to a Key Question and answering it should raise other issues that will stimulate further discussion.
When you are planning Key Questions you need to consider:
* Objective of the discussion
* Group members
* Time
* Topic analysis
The Key Question to follow your introduction can be planned word for word. Later questions should be prepared in an outline so that they can be phrased to fit into the context of the preceding discussion.
The number of Key Questions required for a discussion will depend upon the complexity of the subject, the depth of discussion required, the experience of the group and the time available. Just one 'good' key question might keep a group going for twenty minutes. After the first Key Question the group themselves may develop other questions that cover the points identified by the leader. This is good in that it reduces the need for interventions by the leader and increases the confidence and ownership of the group in what is happening.
The sequence of Key Questions in a discussion should reflect the topic and the way the group have developed the discussion. This makes planning a sequence difficult in advance because imposing the leader's sequence may reduce the flow and sense of the discussion. When we have exhausted a key question, the next key question should be selected to link on to the previous discussion and phrased to reflect the way the group have been discussing the topic.
Time
This is a major constraint. Generally, highly effective discussions require a considerable amount of time. Failure to provide sufficient time, or arbitrary closure of a discussion creates a major barrier to effective discussion. Unfortunately, discussion timing is extremely difficult to predict and depends upon:
* The interest and experience of group members.
* The quality of key questions posed by the leader.
* The way in which group behaviour helps or hinders development of discussions.
* The complexity of the objective to be achieved.
* The diversity of opinion within the group.
Prepare an Introduction
An important role for a discussion leader is to get the discussion going by means of an introduction. We require a delicate balance between a comprehensive introduction that switches the group off and a short one that leaves them puzzled.
When preparing an introduction you should aim for brevity and consider covering the following:
* State the topic to be discussed
* State the purpose of discussion
* Outline limits to topic and timing
* Set the scene
* Establish links with the experience of the group
* Bring everyone to a common starting point
* Arouse interest
* Prepare the group to contribute
* Lead up to first Key Question.
While the list is long, many items can be included very briefly and often grouped together. The introduction should reassure group members that they have something to say, encourage them to say it and listen to what others have to say.
Decide Upon Visual Aids
You must decide whether visual aids are suitable and helpful for your learners in the discussions you lead.
Visual aids can promote learning and stimulate interest. Prepared visuals are not possible except for topic headings and the first key question. If you feel able to prepare visual aid material it suggests you are intending to give some form of presentation.
Where ideas are being sought, having a flipchart is very helpful. The sheets are easily displayed, using 'blue tac' or masking tape, and can be referred to and kept for future circulation and use.
The flipchart seems the most appropriate visual aid for discussions. It can be used to present Key points for discussion and to record what is coming from the group. The flipchart can be used by group members other than the discussion leader. Use of the overhead projector (OHP) is less appropriate because it takes attention away from group members to the screen. While a flipchart can be left displaying a key point for discussion and not be intrusive, the OHP left on can be distracting to the discussion between group members.
Organise Physical Arrangements
Ideal accommodation is seldom available, but the discussion leader should make the best of what is available. The room should be well lit and ventilated. Chairs should be comfortable to sit on for an hour or so, but not so comfortable that people fall asleep. If possible, we should provide tables without them the atmosphere is apt to become too relaxed and reduce active thought and participation.
The layout is extremely important because it can affect the discussion. The seating arrangements need to allow participants to see each other clearly and comfortably. Discussion is very difficult to maintain without eye contact between participants. The discussion leader needs to be seated as part of the group so as not to dominate the discussion and prevent interactions between other group members. The most participative arrangement is the circular table or square table, as shown below in Figure 2.
Fig 2
The "U" formation, shown, below in Figure 3 places the leader in a more obvious position of power but retains easy contact among all members of the group. It is also a convenient layout for other training methods so can be used without major furniture shifting.
Fig. 3
In both layouts any visual aid can be put alongside the discussion leader. The circular arrangement can make it difficult for group members next to the leader to see the visual aid comfortably as they have to twist round to face it.
LEADING A GROUP DISCUSSION
Once the group has assembled and settled down you can present your prepared introduction. This should be brief but adequate to arouse interest and give guidelines to the discussion. Then the first, prepared, Key Question should be posed to the whole group rather than to a nominated person.
You should be prepared to sit quietly to give the group time for thought. By looking around the group you can identify those with something to say, those who are confused or uncertain and those who do not wish to contribute. You must use your judgement on whether your question has been successful in stimulating thought and desire to contribute, or if it needs some qualification or rephrasing. Often your silence will encourage someone to start the discussion by attempting to answer the question. If no one is prepared to speak spontaneously, you may nominate someone who appears to have something to say or you know has something to contribute on the question.
During its early stages a discussion may go 'through the chair' where every contribution is addressed to the leader. The leader responds and then someone else is brought into the discussion. This tends to reflect dominance by the discussion leader. It only takes a few questions nominating individuals to reply for the whole group to sit back and wait for 'their turn'. On occasions such discussions can suddenly 'take off'; without warning group members are talking directly to one another and exploring their views. Debate and disagreement between members is to be welcomed because, well directed and controlled it helps learning.
To avoid discussions 'through the chair' you should address Key Questions to the whole group. Contributions addressed to you should be passed on immediately to another group member for elaboration or comment. Your physical presence should not dominate the group either through position or posture.
INCREASING EFFECTIVENESS OF A DISCUSSION
An important distinction between giving a lecture and leading a discussion is that careful preparation beforehand can work the content and framework of the lecture out in detail. The discussion, of course, also requires careful preparation beforehand. However, the framework cannot be imposed and the detailed content depends on interaction between group members, and with you, during the discussion. In an extreme case, it is possible to visualise a situation where a trainer prepares a lecture, which an actor then delivers: this simply could not happen with a discussion.
The skill of the discussion leader lies in stimulating a good exchange of opinions while keeping to themes.
During the discussion you should manage a fragile relationship between members of the group, and between them and you. The intention should be to generate effective learning, not conflict, dissent or alienation: aim to generate 'light' rather than 'heat'. We can identify two factors that, well managed, will significantly increase the effectiveness of a discussion; we illustrate them in Figure 4, below.
Fig.4
QUALITY OF QUESTIONS
A key factor in successful discussion leading is the use of questions. They provide two essential services:
1. They promote learning. Questions that are perceptive, challenging and appropriate, create an environment where members of the discussion group can gain a deeper insight and understanding of the topic under discussion. We will call these questions Learning questions.
2. They help in the general management and control of the discussion. By appropriate use of questions the discussion leader can control the discussion and provide opportunities for all members of the group to participate. We will call these questions Tactical questions.
To enable a group to obtain maximum value from a discussion, you must consider how to manage the event. You must promote learning by the sensitive use of learning questions and, also, control the discussion by using a variety of tactical questions.
An analogy can be drawn with building a wall a wall of understanding. The bricks in the wall are the learning questions used to promote a better understanding of the topic. The mortar between the bricks is the tactical questioning, maintaining control of the discussion and generally directing its development towards achieving the objective.
LEARNING QUESTIONS
The technique of using questions to promote learning dates back to the days of Socrates in the fifth century BC The leader of a discussion uses the "Socratic Approach", as it is now called, to challenge assumptions, compare opinions, and generally encourage the development of a deeper understanding of the topic under discussion. Learning questions can be considered to fall into two broad categories, low order questions and high order questions.
Low Order Questions
Essentially, these test existing knowledge. They make only a limited contribution to a discussion because they usually require a factual answer. Low order questions are of value in discussion to check understanding and to establish a common base of information. There are three main types of low order questions:
Recall Questions that ask group members to contribute facts.
e.g. “How many......?”
Comprehension Questions that ask group members to describe or check understanding of something, to establish a common starting point for the discussion.
e.g. “What do we understand by the term....?”
Application Questions that ask group members to relate an issue or a simple problem to their own situation and consider how they might apply a proposed solution.
e.g. “How would that work in your department.....?”
High Order Questions
These provoke discussion because there is no clear cut answer. Group members may interpret the question differently and apply their own experience, opinion and attitudes in their response. This leads to a wide diversity of views that can be used as the basis for discussion. Almost certainly, there will be no 'right' or 'wrong' answer. It is the exchange of a variety of comments that can lead to a much wider understanding of the topic or problem being discussed. The following are types of high order questions:
Analysis Questions ask group members to make deductions. They are encouraged to organise their thoughts and to look for evidence to interpret and to make generalisations. The value of these questions is that the leader can draw on the experience of members. The question can be illustrated by reference to similar situations that encourage members to express opinions.
e.g. “So what does that mean for other sections?”
Synthesis Questions stimulate the group's creative potential. They require people to reflect and work together as a team, encouraging participants to develop ideas and suggestions.
e.g. “Can we build on that idea somehow?”
Evaluation Questions can be considered the highest level of thinking to be obtained from a discussion group. No matter how brilliantly a conclusion from other categories of questions, they must evaluate it and consider its worth. It encourages members to give reasons for their judgements and to assess different ideas and solutions.
e.g. “Which of these possible approaches do you prefer, and why?”
Application of Learning Questions
In planning the types of question to ask, you should consider:
1. The level of the questions. If too low, the group may see the discussion as a pointless recall of knowledge. If too high a level, the group may feel threatened and respond in a defensive manner. High order questions can make the group feel that they are being asked to contribute outside their level of expertise and experience.
2. What alternative questions to ask, either further up or lower down the order. This should provide a degree of flexibility and permit you to adapt to the learning needs of the group.
3. The time available. Low order questions require a relatively simple answer: they are less likely to provoke controversy and can be concluded quickly. High order questions are likely to do the opposite.
TACTICAL QUESTIONS
We need tactical questions when group behaviour is limiting the learning from the discussion. They may be necessary to bring some participants into the discussion, to acknowledge the contribution of others and to get the discussion to move on. Tactical questions are devices for directing the discussion and generally controlling the event. In themselves tactical questions do not promote much learning; their main purpose is to focus discussion on the high order learning questions.
They help the discussion leader to:
* Ensure that learning questions are fully understood, before the detailed discussion.
* Manage the participation of group members.
* Control the allocation of time to each aspect of the topic.
* Summarise and check for understanding and agreement.
Tactical questions can be considered within three broad categories:
1. Open Questions
2. Probing Questions
3. Closed Questions
1. Open Questions
To establish rapport
Introductory questions used to establish an initial relationship with the group. Examples:
'Didn’t you used to work in the audit department?'
'Have you met.....?'
To explore the background
Used to establish a common basis upon which to build the discussion. Examples:
'Please tell us about.......?'
'How does the (topic) affect your department?'
To explore opinions or attitudes
Again, used to establish a common basis, but the emphasis is now on the individual member's opinion or attitude towards the topic. Examples:
'To what extent to do you feel...?'
'Just how far do you think?'
2. Probing Questions
To show interest or encouragement
Where the leader encourages a member of the group by making supportive statements, or repeating key words to encourage responses from others. Examples:
'That's interesting......?'
'I see........?' ('Tell us more')
To seek further information
Used to develop a member's statement by prompting further comment. Examples:
'Why?'
'What would you do if......?'
To explore in detail
Where comments of potentially great significance are highlighted by seeking further opinions. Examples:
'Just how far do you think......?'
'You feel that......?'
To establish understanding
Where the leader controls the discussion by summarising a particular aspect of the topic. Examples:
'As I understand it........?'
'The consensus is.....?'
3. Closed Questions
These are especially useful for establishing facts, or to control a discussion in danger of falling apart through lack of understanding. Examples:
'Are you......?'
'How often do you......?''
GROUP BEHAVIOUR
During a discussion you have the responsibility to control the group's participation. You have to:
* Understand the contribution of each member.
* Help group members to understand each contribution.
* Ensure that the contributions relate to the Key Question.
* Summarise the contributions and record main points.
* Summarise each aspect of the topic at an appropriate time
* Encourage contributions from everyone in the group.
* Limit contributions.
* Keep to time constraints.
By improving the quality of group participation and planning high quality questions you can increase the effectiveness of the discussion.
During the discussion you may be faced with group members who are either not helping or are actively hindering the group.
(a) You may be faced with group members who talk too much. If you 'shut them up' you may lose them for the rest of the session; if you let them go on for too long, you may lose the group who by that time get bored and have 'switched off'.
Supplementary questions and summaries can be useful to clarify and break into an individual's contribution. Asking another individual to comment upon what has been said can also help to widen the discussion.
(b) Do not put too much pressure on 'silent members’. It may do more harm than good. Silence does not mean that they are not learning.
However, encouraging looks, or asking silent members to help with recording contributions can be useful to bring them into the body of the group.
You can use three major techniques to control the discussion:
Questions
The quality of the discussion is very dependent on the quality of questions. This applies to both key questions and supplementary questions. Good questions can help people to think, clarify understanding, and stimulate an active approach to the topic.
It is essential that you ask questions with a genuine desire to understand or clarify. We should frame questions in a way that avoids any member feeling attacked. Any attempt to make a member of the group look foolish, or to score off a member, will often lead to a breakdown of effective discussion.
Asking how one contribution relates to an earlier one will help to keep the discussion together and develop understanding of the topic.
Silence
Silence can be a most valuable contribution to a discussion. During silences, people can think. To use silence you should make sure that the group have a good, challenging, question to help them to think. Then remain seated and be silent yourself.
Associated with silence is the art of listening. It can be helpful if you note down useful comments from members of the group and encourage them to do also. The skill of listening is one of the most demanding in discussion leading. As a discussion leader you should listen carefully to the contributions being made; decide whether you have understood; decide whether the rest of the group understood, and perhaps phrase a clarifying question and at some stage summarise the content. Doing all these things together is very difficult and very tiring. Your attention will almost slip from time to time, so note taking can be helpful in keeping concentration and providing a reminder to which you can refer for summaries.
Summaries
At certain points in the discussion you should gather related contributions together and summarise them. If this is a summary of a Key Question, recording this in writing on the flipchart is useful. This gives you the opportunity to control the movement of the discussion and prevents the group from wandering from the topic; it consolidates what they have learned; and gives the group a sense of achievement.
The summary is useful to control the timing of the discussion. Providing a summary can round off a Key Question. It will normally close discussion on that aspect, and allow discussion to move on to the next.
By controlling the discussion in this way, you can apportion the time available. Sometimes spending time on a deeper discussion of one aspect may be more useful for the group than move on to another. This is a matter of judgement, and will depend on the objectives, the learning value of the discussion, and other constraints. However, members of a discussion group will become extremely frustrated if the leader prematurely concludes their discussion.
The final summary of a discussion can be quite brief and should round off the discussion into a coherent whole. Because the final summary must reflect the content of the discussion, we cannot plan it in advance. The use of the flipchart to record points arising and reference to notes made by the discussion leader can both be very helpful in doing the final summary.
During the final summary you should consider the following points:
* Review the points covered
* Acknowledge specific contributions
* Develop conclusions reached
* Action to be followed when and by whom
* Reinforce understanding of the topic
THE ROLE OF THE LEADER
The primary purpose of the discussion is to enable participants to learn from each other. The discussion leader should be:
* Impartial in responding to group members.
* Supportive to the group and encouraging contributions.
* Managing the discussion within time constraints.
* Not seen as the centre of attention.
* A member of the group.
* Prepared to learn as much as any other member of the group.
* Stimulating the group to explore the topic in depth.
The essential feature of your role is to serve the learning needs of group members. You can do this by asking questions to clarify members' understanding and to challenge assumptions, and by summarising the contributions and conclusions reached in the group to help them achieve the learning objective.
This may appear to make the discussion leader's role more passive than the role of presenting new information in a lecture. The role is, in fact, very demanding and active; attentive listening and a quick grasp of what is being said are essential. In a discussion, differences in entry behaviour become far more apparent as the people in the group become equal partners; you have to create a learning event that will lead to a full discussion of the subject and the realisation of the objective for the discussion.
USING GROUP EXERCISES
DTS-11
INTRODUCTION
Training activities are influenced to a quite marked extent by the entry behaviour of participants (The things they already know and can do and the attitudes they adopt). This is especially true when the learning group consists of mature, experienced, adults.
Each participant will bring his or her own mixture of status, knowledge, skills, attitudes, opinions, prejudices, motivation, good and bad experiences, and so on, to the learning event. What is missing is an experience common to all members of the group, around which they can learn.
A group exercise can establish the common ground around which trainees can learn. Instead of basing their thinking on an abstract theory, trainees can start from their experience in an exercise and build up to a principle or a theory.
WHAT IS A GROUP EXERCISE?
A group of managers on a course is given the task of counting the number of pebbles in a square metre of beach; or to build a tall tower using only A4 sheets of paper and a stapler; or to invent a new game using a pack of playing cards. These are all examples of possible group exercises used in training mature and experienced managers. The purpose in the mind of the trainer might be to develop good group working relationships.
Clearly the approach is a very different one from starting with a lecture about the views of a distinguished theorist. The major differences are that:
a) The trainees are given something active to do, and
b) That their learning is developed from their experience in performing that activity.
A group exercise is a kind of simulation. It is a substitute task, one intended to simulate in a simplified form a situation that the trainees could face at work. We can define a group exercise as a learning event in which selected parts of a physical and/or social situation are either reduced in size and complexity or simulated, so that we can recreate essential elements for learning purposes.
Active participation in learning is an important feature of good training, especially for adult, mature and experienced trainees. For example, the theories of motivation could be introduced to trainees by means of a group exercise and we could discuss this common experience in its relation to their work. Given the right choice of group exercise, trainees are likely to remember their experiences doing it and significant learning points. They will remember this long after they have forgotten the theories of various experts they were told as passive recipients of a lecture.
A group exercise prepares for active participation because we give the group a task to perform. This gives trainee an opportunity to study and put into practice the knowledge, skills and attitudes involved in the human aspects of working in a group. There is a task something to be done. Nevertheless, because we normally make the task intentionally simple, the attention of the group is focused not on the task itself the content of what is done but on how it is done the process.
Group exercises should be used for training because they provide a common experience, active participation and practice. They should not be used merely to provide variety or add interest.
GROUP EXERCISES AND LEARNING
Group exercises provide an opportunity for each member of the group to be involved in doing something and to learn from what he or she does. Trainees have an opportunity to try different ways of doing things without the risk involved if they tried the same things in a real working environment. The impact of this experience and the realism of the simulated situation can change behaviour and should help the process of transferring and applying what they have learnt to their work situations. We can represent the process in this way:
Experiencing
This process starts with experiencing something in the group exercise. The trainee becomes involved in the group activity for example doing, saying or observing something. This involvement becomes the basis of the whole process.
Discussing
The trainee discusses with other members of the group his or her reactions to and observations on the activity that they have also experienced or observed. We discuss what occurred in the exercise and group members assess its significance.
Generalising
The group members need to do more than just discuss their specific experience in the exercise. They need to go on to develop general principles derived from the experience to their own work situation.
Applying
Finally the group members should plan how they can apply the general principles to the situations they face at work.
WHY USE GROUP EXERCISES FOR TRAINING?
To those unaccustomed to training practices, group exercises may be a curious method of training. It might be asked why simple tasks should be used, or activities apparently unrelated to what people do at work. It might seem more appropriate, for example, to use a case study containing a description of a situation similar to one the trainees would face in their work, rather than ask them to participate in, for example, competitions and paper folding tasks. However, the reasons for using group exercises are:
To give practice and experience through substitute tasks
Real life situations from the working environment are often too complex for the underlying principles about the behaviour used by participants to emerge clearly. In real life there are all kinds of procedures, practices, technical considerations etc., which affect what is done. Group exercises strip away most of these factors to enable trainees to see more clearly the principles underlying their behaviour.
To focus on PROCESS rather than CONTENT
The simpler the task is, (i.e. the content) the better. Because of the simplicity of the task attention can more easily be focused on the behaviour of the participants the process. There is a danger that if we too closely relate the task to real life, the participants will give so much attention to its technical content that little learning about the process will take place.
To relate the group's behaviour to general principles
The basis of the discussion that follows a group exercise is the behaviour of the group what the participants said or did, or the way it was said or done. We then relate this to general principles. This approach generally has greater impact, and more learning takes place than would occur if we adopted the alternative approach, i.e. explaining the general principles or theories first, and then attempting to put them into practice.
To reduce risk and 'save face'
Experimenting with behaviour in the real life situation often involves an unacceptable degree of risk. Group exercises, on the other hand, enable the trainer to use what trainees actually say or do as the basis of discussion in a non threatening situation. While if trainees feel threatened by the situation they face in an exercise, or their behaviour is shown up as inappropriate, they can "save
face" because the task is not a significant or real one in work terms. A business executive need not feel any sense of failure because he or she failed to build a tall tower made of sheets of paper and staples!
SOME SUBJECT AREAS FOR GROUP EXERCISES
Group exercises are generally used for studying and developing interpersonal skills. The skills involved include the following:
Leadership
Communications
Motivation
Negotiation
Problem solving
Decision making
Working in groups
Team building
Contributing to Meetings
SELECTING AND USING A GROUP EXERCISE
Some do's and don'ts are suggested below to help in making group exercises as effective as possible.
As the trainer, you should:
* Make sure that you are thoroughly familiar with the subject matter. Flexibility is needed to adapt the discussion of the material to what actually happens in the exercise, while making sure that the main points it was intended to bring out are covered.
* Make sure that the exercise is appropriate to the objectives of the learning unit and to the abilities and attitudes of the trainees.
* Consider whether there is a need to adapt, restructure, rewrite or modify a generally suitable exercise, so that it fits the objectives or the needs of the particular group.
* Make sure that you are thoroughly familiar with the procedure for conducting the exercise.
* Consider the various possible outcomes and relate these to the subsequent discussion of what has been learnt.
* Plan the discussion. We must allow time for a thorough analysis of what happened in the exercise and its implications. Remember that this is more important than the exercise itself. The exercise is only the means of producing the material to be analysed and discussed. It will have limited value unless the issues arising from it are fully explored with the group.
As the trainer you should not:
* Use group exercises merely
to fill in time
to provide variety
to 'see what happens'
because you like using them
* Use an exercise in the same way for all groups and irrespective of the objectives of the training.
* Structure the discussion in a pre determined way, irrespective of what happened during the exercise.
PREPARATION AND PLANNING
It follows from what was said above that careful preparation and planning are required to use a group exercise. You must decide:
What is the purpose of the training?
The exercise should be chosen to suit the overall purpose of the learning unit. It should also suit the trainees and you.
Objective
What learning outcome is expected from the exercise? Will the exercise in its existing form enable this to be achieved or does it need to be modified?
Entry behaviour
How does the exercise suit the trainees' knowledge, skills, attitudes, experience, maturity and learning style? Does it need to be modified in any way to make it more suitable? How many trainees are likely to be present?
Learning Event
How much time does the exercise require in relation to time available? What variations are likely to occur during the exercise that might affect subsequent activities?
Performance Assessment
How will you assess whether the expected learning has taken place?
TRY OUT
Before using a group exercise, and particularly if you lack experience of running group exercises, you should try it out on a suitable group. This might be a group of colleagues who are prepared to work through the exercise and comment on it. In trying it out, check the following:
That you are sufficiently familiar with the administration of the exercise
That the desired issues are raised
What divergence there is between expected and actual outcomes. (No group will exactly reproduce the results of another).
It is also valuable to have practice in giving feedback on what actually happened in the group not on what you thought might happen.
CONSIDER
What detailed arrangements will be necessary to conduct the exercise?
For example:
What materials are required?
What accommodation is required?
How many participants will there be?
Can all participants be allocated a role in the exercise?
How are the participants likely to behave in the exercise?
How much time will be needed to conduct the exercise and discuss it?
What are the possible learning outcomes?
PLAN
Consider the following points:
Trainee Activity
- What each trainee's role will be in the exercise.
Time
- How much time to allocate to each part of the exercise (remember that we must allow sufficient time for the discussion afterwards)
Trainer Activity
- What role you will play during the exercise
Learning Aids
- Will we require any learning aids during the exercise or in the discussion afterwards?
The Sequence of Events
- How will the exercise be introduced?
- Does the topic need to be introduced with a mini lecture?
- Does the exercise need to be presented in distinct stages?
- What kind of information for discussion is the exercise likely to produce?
- Does that information need to be arranged in distinct stages?
CONDUCTING THE GROUP EXERCISE
You should consider the following points:
Relate to Objectives
You, and the participants, can easily get so involved in an exercise that its purpose as part of the learning process is forgotten.
You should remember throughout the exercise what the objectives are in using it, and stick to them.
Plan and Prepare Thoroughly
Make sure that all the administrative details of the exercise are arranged beforehand.
Consider also a variety of possible outcomes of the exercise. How can you relate these to the purpose of the exercise and of the learning unit as a whole? All the points you wish to discuss may not emerge from a particular run through of the exercise: you may need to discuss other possible outcomes. What lines will the discussion follow afterwards, to cover the learning points?
Plan for Contingencies
The exercise may take more or less time than anticipated or have a different outcome.
Having alternative material or activities available and ready to be presented is prudent, e.g. for groups that are more/less advanced than the average.
Check where we can make changes to the timetable if that should be necessary.
Check Knowledge
As the use of group exercises becomes more common, it is possible that some trainees may already know or have done the exercise. Usually this does not matter, but with some exercises the impact can be ruined if someone in the group already knows how to solve the problem or analyse the situation.
Brief Participants
Explain the procedure and make sure that all participants understand their roles in the exercise before starting. This may involve:
Stating the objectives clearly and concisely
In some cases giving an overview of the subject matter first
Describing the procedure for the exercise
Explaining the trainer's role during the exercise
Explaining why this method of training is being used.
In briefing the group, keep the desired outcomes in mind. However, we should not overload the participants with instructions. Where possible, giving instruction in small amounts at appropriate stages of the exercise is better. Check that the briefing is understood.
Watch Observers
If the exercise involves some participants acting as observers rather than being directly involved in the task, make sure that they do not interfere with the process. They may be tempted to get
involved in the task or to give help and advice to participants. Make sure that they stick to their allotted role of observing the process.
Keep Within Broad Guidelines
Exercises involve participants in performing a task in their own way; this is a major reason for using them. However, keeping the exercise within broad guidelines is necessary so that it achieves its objective; otherwise it may deteriorate into a "fun" activity from which the participants learn nothing.
Collect Information
You should observe the process and make notes, even if we have appointed observers, so that comments afterwards can be related to what happened in the exercise. You can then add to the observers' comments if they have failed to observe some important points.
We should ask that the observers and participants comment on and discuss what happened before you make any comments. They will have comments to make and need to be given the opportunity. Also, you will need to concentrate on leading the discussion away from the specific outcomes of the exercise and on to general principles.
Discuss Issues
Participants should not be left to draw their own conclusions. The exercise should be the source of topics for discussion rather than the context of learning by itself.
Discussion of the issues should normally involve three stages:
1. Describe the experience
Get the group to discuss such questions as:
What happened?
What was said/done?
What did participants think/feel?
What problems emerged?
What courses of action were tried?
To what extent were aims of the group achieved?
2. Analyse the experience
Get the group to discuss such questions as:
Why did things happen?
Why did problems arise?
Why did the actions taken fail/succeed?
What were the consequences of what was said or done?
3. Develop general concepts
Get the group to relate their experience in the exercise to the work they do. Get them to consider such questions as:
Do people say/do things in this way at work?
What are the consequences?
Can success/failure in the exercise be related to success/failure in work situations?
Can the group develop a plan of action or general principles for improved performance at work?
In short, the discussion should start with consideration of the details of what happened and should move on to consider the underlying principles that apply to work situations. Throughout the discussion, the participants should discuss what happened the behaviour that they observed not speculate on the underlying motives or personal attributes.
REVIEW THE EXERCISE
After the session has been completed, the trainer should review the exercise. Consider:
Did it achieve the objective?
Does it need to be modified, revised or improved?
Was the exercise run in the most effective way?
Were the outcomes discussed adequately?
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP EXERCISES
We can summarise the advantages of using group exercises in training as follows:
They provide for trainee centred learning
They provide a common experience, shared by all members of the learning group
Exercises can be designed/selected/modified to fit the objective of a learning unit and as a major contributor to a learning event
All participants can be actively involved and their attention and motivation are therefore more easily maintained
They minimise the effects of different entry behaviours
The trainer acts as a coach/mentor. Freed from the role of a direct instructor, he or she can supervise, observe, question and provide feedback
Exercises enable complex interpersonal skills to be practised
They can be used to modify attitudes and to develop knowledge and skills
DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP EXERCISES
The main disadvantages of group exercises are that:
They require careful preparation and planning to be effective
The outcome varies from one group to another and is difficult to predict
What individuals learn depends on their own level of involvement, their ability to relate what happens in the exercise to their existing knowledge, skills and attitudes and their ability to relate very specific experience to general principles
The success of group exercises is very dependent on the attitudes and expectations of trainees. They may expect the trainer to "teach" them (i.e. to be the sole source of information and advice). Therefore, they may regard an exercise as light relief or fun, rather than as a serious method for helping them to learn
SOME SOURCES OF GROUP EXERCISES
J William Pfeiffer and John E Jones (editors)
A Handbook(s) of Structured Experiences for Human Relations Training
University Associates
J William Pfeiffer and John E Jones (editors)
The Annual Handbook(s) for Group Facilitators
University Associates
Rodney W Napier and Matti K Gershenfeld
Groups: Theory and Experience
Houghton - Miffin
British Association for Commercial and Industrial Education
A Handbook(s) of Management Training Exercises
BACIE
Luis Thayer (editor)
50 Strategies for Experiential Learning
University Associates
John Adair
Training for Decisions - A Tutor’s Manual
BACIE
Gary Kroehnert
100 Training Games
McGraw-Hill
Mel Silberman
Active Learning: A Handbook of Techniques, Designs, Case Examples and Tips
MacMillan
Margaret Gredler
Designing and Evaluating Games and Simulations
Kogan Page
Andy Kirby
Games for Trainers
Gower
Scannell and Newstrom
Games Trainers Play
McGraw-Hill
Edward Scannell
More Games Trainers Play
McGraw-Hill
Scannell and Newstrom
Still More Games Trainers Play
McGraw-Hill
Ken Jones
Icebreakers: A Sourcebook of Games, Exercises and Simulations
Kogan Page
Elizabeth Christopher and Larry Smith
Leadership Training: A Sourcebook of Activities
Kogan Page
John Fripp
Learning Through Simulation
McGraw-Hill
Carolyn Nilson
Team Games for Trainers
McGraw-Hill
Morry Van Ments
The Effective Use of Role-Play: A Handbook for Teachers and Trainers
Kogan Page
David Turner
Role Plays: A Sourcebook of Activities for Trainers
Kogan Page
